Journal of Functional Foods 92 (2022) 105054

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Journal of Functional Foods

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jff

Banana peels as a bioactive ingredient and its potential application in the

food industry
Hana Mohd Zaini a, Jumardi Roslan a, Suryani Saallah b, Elisha Munsu a,
Nurul Shaeera Sulaiman a, Wolyna Pindi a, *
a
Faculty of Food Science and Nutrition, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Jalan UMS, 88400 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia
b
Biotechnology Research Institute, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Jalan UMS, 88400 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Background: The use of agricultural by-products as a source of functional ingredients, particularly those from crop
Banana peel plants, has received great interest. Banana (Musa spp.) is a common food crop worldwide, but its peel, similar to
Musa Sp. other agricultural by-products, is often discarded. Banana peel has the potential to be transformed into functional
Bioactive
foods because it is historically consumed as food and medicine in some regions of the world.
Functional ingredient
Scope and approach: Current analysis recaps the nutritional characteristics, bioactive elements and potential
Functional food
health-promoting properties of banana peel and its utilisation in the food industry.
Key Findings and Conclusion: The discoveries, particularly on the broad array of bioactive chemical constituents in
peel and their related biological activities, seem to rationalise the proposed use of banana peel in several food
industries. Banana peel is appreciated for its bioactive components, particularly the phenolic compounds. The
major phenolic compounds found in the banana peel are grouped as flavonols, hydroxycinnamic acids, flavan-3-
ols, and catecholamines. The incorporation of banana peel into food products enhanced the nutritional content,
particularly the dietary fibre and phenolic content. It has been demonstrated that banana peel reduces lipid
oxidation, particularly in meat-based products. Despite the nutrients offered by banana peels, this paper dis­
cusses the potential anti-nutrient content that must be addressed. From this review, banana peel shows great
potential to be developed into beneficial functional foods and nutraceuticals. However, proper regulation and
legalisation of bioactive enrichment of food products from the banana peel are required to ensure its safety for
human consumption.

1. Introduction
Banana is a widely cultivated and consumed fruit crop in the tropical
and subtropical region. The average banana consumption is 12 kg per
capita, making it the world’s leading food crop after rice, wheat and
maize. The world production of bananas has increased steadily over the
last 20 years, from approximately 70 million tonnes in 1999 to around
117 million tonnes in 2019. Bananas are predominantly produced in
Asia, Latin America and Africa (Fig. 1[a]). In 2019, the prominent
producer of banana is India, followed by China, Indonesia, Brazil and
Ecuador (Fig. 1[b]) (FAOSTAT, 2020).
Banana plants belong to the Musaceae family. Banana plants are
derived from three genera (Musa, Ensette and Musella) under the same
family, but they universally comprise several species in Musa (Mathew &
Negi, 2017). Almost all the identified cultivars of banana are derived
from two diploid species, namely, Musa acuminata (A genome) and ­
Musa balbisiana (B genome). Cultivars belonging to Musa balbisiana ­
tend to be starchy bananas, which are also known as plantains, and
cultivars belonging to Musa acuminata tend to be sweet dessert, peeled
and eaten types of bananas.
Given that banana is an important crop worldwide, plantation gen­
erates tonnes of residues after each harvest season and during processing
to obtain banana pulps. The depositions may include leaves, pseudos­
tem, stalk and inflorescence, but 35%–50% of the total mass fruit rep­
resents the banana peel (Gomes et al., 2020). Banana peels are typically
dumped into the environment without any treatment. In some cases,
banana peel may be used as organic fertiliser and animal feed because of
its low tannins and high fibre content (Pereira & Maraschin, 2014).
Approximately 36 million tons of banana peel is produced every year,
and their current endpoint is associated with adverse environmental

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: woly@ums.edu.my (W. Pindi).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jff.2022.105054
Received 1 December 2021; Received in revised form 19 March 2022; Accepted 27 March 2022
Available online 31 March 2022
1756-4646/© 2022 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
H. Mohd Zaini et al.
impact and economic losses (Gomes et al., 2020). Every day, several
tonnes of banana peel wastes is generated in fruit markets and home
garbage, causing an unpleasant odour because of anaerobic digestion of
the biomass, which produces gases that disturb the natural balance of
air. Although ripe bananas are consumed unprocessed, significant
quantities of bananas are industrially processed into banana flour, chips
and other processed goods, resulting in vast banana peel waste. Previ­
ously, banana peels were disposed of in a landfill by food manufacturing
industries. The agriculture industry would benefit financially from the
conversion of banana peel into a valuable product.
Peel has traditionally been used as a remedy for a variety of ailment
such as burns, anaemia, diarrhoea, ulcers, inflammation, diabetes,
cough, snakebite and excessive menstruation (Pereira & Maraschin,
2015). Peel is high in dietary fibre and phenolic compounds, and it has
high antioxidant, antibacterial and antibiotic activities (Fidrianny &
Insanu 2014). Hence, it is a material with much potential, which pro­
motes its use in the nutraceutical and pharmaceutical industries.
The rapid increase in world population and the trend towards the use
of environmentally friendly and viable agricultural by-products offer a
steady platform for the continuation of innovation in the development of
banana by-products and waste goods. With regard to nutritional quality,
banana peel has shown excellent uses in different food items such as
bakery, culinary products and meat products primarily because of its
various bioactive compounds with potential health-promoting effects
(Zhang et al., 2020). Thus, the nutritional value information and
bioactive compounds of banana peel are critically analysed and sum­
marised in this review, and the current applications of this by-product,
particularly in the food industry, are outlined. This review paper
focused on the nutritional composition of banana peel, which rational­
ised its application in several food products. This review aimed to fill the
existing gap, for example, the bioactive compound of banana peel and its
effect on the pharmacological activity and the anti-nutrient compounds
that need to be considered, and to improve our understanding of the
potential utilisation of banana peel. A graphical outline of the present
review is presented in Fig. 2.
Fig. 1. (a) Percentage data of banana production by region and (b) The top 10 largest banana producing countries (FAOSTAT, 2020).
2
Journal of Functional Foods 92 (2022) 105054
2. Nutritional composition of banana peel
The utilisation of fruit peels in nutrient supplementation primarily
relies on their chemical composition. Similar to its pulp counterpart,
banana peel contains rich organic content (lipids, fibre, carbohydrate
and protein) as a key source of many bioactive compounds with various
functionalities. Nutritional compositions, which are found in banana
peel, are summarised in Table 1.
2.1. Fatty acids
Essential fatty acids (EFAs) have been considered as nutraceuticals
and functional foods. EFAs serve as the foundation for the structural
components of cells, tissues and organs and the synthesis of several
biologically active compounds. The importance of EFAs in many meta­
bolic processes has been documented in numerous research studies
(Gupta and Houston, 2017). EFAs may have a cardioprotective benefit
because of their antiatherogenic, antithrombotic, anti-inflammatory and
anti-arrhythmic properties. Furthermore, EFAs may reduce the risk of
serious diseases, such as cardiovascular disease (CVD), cancer, osteo­
porosis, diabetes and other health-promoting actions, because of their
complex interaction on lipoprotein concentrations and biological
membrane fluidity. Table 2 shows the EFAs contained in ripe and unripe
banana peel from few varieties.
The results from the current literature have shown that banana peels
are rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids such as linoleic acid (Omega-6)
and α-linolenic acid (Omega-3), which account for more than 40% of the
total fatty acids (Khawas & Deka, 2016; Emaga et al., 2007). A diet
enriched with linoleic acid has shown a decrease in liver fat and
modestly enhanced metabolic status without any signs of inflammation
(Marangoni et al., 2020). Meanwhile, clinical studies have demonstrated
that α-linolenic acid has an anti-inflammatory effect on obesity (Faint­
uch et al., 2007). PUFA content, such as linoleic (omega-6) and α-lino­
lenic (omega-3), is high in banana peel.
2.2. Amino acids
Amino acids are the primary building blocks of proteins and
H. Mohd Zaini et al. Journal of Functional Foods 92 (2022) 105054

Fig. 2. Graphical outline of the present review.

nitrogenous backbones for neurotransmitters and hormones. Banana

Table 1
peel can be considered as a good source of amino acids because most of
Nutritional Component of Banana Peel (Essien et al. 2005; (Lee, Yeom,
the 18 amino acids (nine essential amino acids and nine non-essential
Ha, & Bae, 2010); Emaga et al. 2007).
amino acids) are present in banana peel at various levels of develop­
Nutritional Component Average Content, % DM
ment (Khawas & Deka, 2016; Emaga et al., 2007). Table 3 presents the
Starch 3.5 – 6.3 amino acids contained in banana peel.
Resistant Starch 2.3 – 2.5 Essential amino acids such as leucine and lysine are abundant in
Dietary Fibre 47 – 53
Crude Fat 2.24 – 11.6
plantain peel. Dietary leucine consumption has been suggested to have a
Crude Protein 5.5 – 7.87 net health benefit on a long-term basis, including a reduction in diet-
Ash 9 – 11 induced weight gain, hyperglycaemia and hypercholesterolemia
Carbohydrate 59.51 – 76.58

Table 3
Table 2 Amino Acids in Banana Peel (Tsado et al., 2021).
Essential Fatty Acids in Banana Peel. Amino Acid Plantain peel Banana Peel
Banana Peels Culinary French Clair Grande Naine (g/100 g protein) (g/100 g protein)
banana peels (FC) (%) (GN) (%)
Leucine 7.76 ± 0.05 0.01 ± 0.00
(Musa ABB)
Lysine 7.90 ± 0.03 6.71 ± 0.06
(%)
Isoleucine 5.24 ± 0.05 8.06 ± 0.04
Stage of peel maturity 1 5 1 7 1 7 Phenylalanine 4.79 ± 0.06 4.98 ± 0.07
Norleucine 0.02 ± 0.00 5.23 ± 0.06
Saturated fatty acid Trytophan 0.58 ± 0.03 0.01 ± 0.00
Lauric acid (12:0) 0.8 0.4 0.8 – 1.0 0.7 Valine 5.67 ± 0.01 0.52 ± 0.02
Myristics acid (14:0) 0.2 0.1 5.2 0.9 4.3 4.6 Methionine 1.60 ± 0.03 5.79 ± 0.03
Palmitic acid (16:0) 3.3 2.7 38.1 37.2 38.2 41.5 Proline 3.25 ± 0.02 1.71 ± 0.02
Stearic acid (C18:0) 3.0 2.6 3.7 4.5 5.3 3.4 Arginine 4.99 ± 0.03 3.25 ± 0.05
Monounsaturated fatty acid Tyrosine 3.96 ± 0.06 5.50 ± 0.03
Oleic acid (C18:1) 5.3 4.8 4.1 6.1 4.2 3.2 Histidine 2.11 ± 0.04 3.96 ± 0.01
Polyunsaturated fatty acid Cystine 0.85 ± 0.02 2.24 ± 0.03
α-Linoleic acid (18:3n-3) 2.1 2.0 20.2 29.0 21.1 21.2 Alanine 6.22 ± 0.05 0.85 ± 0.04
Linolenic acid (18:2n-6) 2.3 2.0 23.9 22.2 22.7 23.9 Glutamic acid 12.72 ± 0.02 5.31 ± 0.01
References Khawas & Emaga et al. (2007) Glycine 3.94 ± 0.01 13.02 ± 0.82
Deka (2016) Threonine 5.38 ± 0.06 6.10 ± 0.03
“-“ no reported data in cited article. Serine 4.05 ± 0.04 4.59 ± 0.04
Aspartic acid 8.68 ± 0.02 9.06 ± 0.05
Total 89.71 ± 5.45 86.71 ± 3.02

3
H. Mohd Zaini et al.
(Zhang et al., 2007). This finding indicates that particular lysine con­
jugates have application potential in cancer treatment, as they cause
cancerous cells to self-destruct when combined with phototherapy
whilst leaving non-cancerous cells unharmed (Roomi et al., 2006).
2.3. Dietary fibre
The predominant cause of death in patients with diabetes is CVD,
which has been associated with two to fourfold higher mortality
(Raghavan et al., 2019). Doctors advise most diabetic patients to restrict
or refrain from eating highly nutritious fruits such as bananas, leading to
hyperglycaemia and weight gain. On the contrary, the latest studies of
the antidiabetic potential of banana fruit have received considerable
interest in further exploring the antihyperglycemic effect of banana
fruit. The hydrolysis of starch in pulp (about 20%) contributes to the
accumulation of sucrose, glucose and fructose during maturation,
making it more palatable and sweeter. Conversely, only about 3% of
starch is present in unripe peels, which might make the inner peel
tasteless because of the low sugar content even after ripening (Dris &
Jain, 2004).
Studies have shown that the total and LDL cholesterol levels are
decreased by dietary fibre intake (Reynolds et al., 2020). In addition, the
same study results have shown that in the tested doses (50–250 mg of
dietary fibre), the soluble dietary fibre from Musa paradisiaca displays
better cholesterol absorption capacity than the insoluble dietary fibre
(Arun et al., 2017).
Oxidised low-density lipoprotein (LDL) increases the expression of
pro-inflammatory genes that proceed to monocyte recruitment into the
vascular endothelial cells of a dysfunctional blood vessel wall, and
oxidised LDL is destroyed through the generation of free radicals. Thus,
inhibition of LDL oxidation is essential in the management of CVDs and
atherosclerosis. The findings of a study by Arun et al. (2017) showed
that the extracts of methanol and ethyl acetate from Musa paradisiaca
effectively prevented LDL oxidation dose-dependently with IC50 values
of 169.52 and 217.45 μg/mL, respectively.
The enzyme that transforms angiotensin I (ACE) to angiotensin II is a
potent vasoconstrictor, which plays a critical role in blood pressure
Fig. 3. Proposed mechanism of antioxidant effect of banana peel phenolic compounds.
4
Journal of Functional Foods 92 (2022) 105054
control. Angiotensin II has been implicated in the progression of
vascular complications of diabetes as a crucial promoter of insulin
resistance. Therefore, another clinical approach in the treatment of
diabetes tends to be ACE inhibition. According to Arun et al. (2017),
Musa paradisiaca extracts have an inhibitory effect against ACE within
the tested concentrations comparable to the positive control, captopril
(100–200 μg/mL).
3. Pharmacological activity
Overall, banana peels have been found to contain bioactive com­
pounds such as flavonoids, tannins, phlobatannins, alkaloids, glyco­
sides, anthocyanins, and terpenoids which affect various biological and
pharmacological (antibacterial, antihypertensive, antidiabetic, and anti-
inflammatory) (Pereira & Maraschin, 2015) functions. Bioactive com­
pounds from secondary plant metabolism have significant therapeutic
potential by leading to antioxidant activity. Phenolics and carotenoids
are the dominant phytochemicals present in fruits and vegetables
related to human health (Singh et al., 2015). Various health benefits
have been associated with phenolic compounds, such as the prevention
of cardiovascular disease, cancer, diabetes, and obesity (Boots et al.,
2008; Cheng et al., 2007). Fig. 3 depict the mechanism of action of
bioactive compounds in banana peel on pharmacological activity.
3.1. Source of antioxidant
Several epidemiological studies indicate that dietary antioxidants
reduce the risk of diseases such as diabetes, cancer and CVD, which are
typically associated with oxidative stress (Nisha & Mini, 2014). Dietary
antioxidants may play a role in preventing and complementing the
treatment of these diseases by scavenging free radicals and minimising
oxidative stress. They can also protect food from oxidation; thus, dietary
antioxidants are a potential alternative to synthetic antioxidants that are
strictly regulated for use because of their possible health risks (Agour­
ram et al., 2013). Their use can be expanded to the food industry
because of the low cost and large quantities of plant biowastes produced,
where they can be used as antioxidants to invent new functional foods.
H. Mohd Zaini et al. Journal of Functional Foods 92 (2022) 105054

Phenolics are important secondary metabolites, which are present in
banana peels at high levels relative to other fruits. Numerous phenolic
compounds, such as gallic acid, catechin, epicatechin, tannins and an­
thocyanins, are found in banana peel (Sidhu & Zafar, 2018). In addition,
gallocatechin in banana peel is five times higher than that in pulp,
implying that peel is a high source of antioxidant compounds (Someya
et al. 2002).
Multi-mechanistic antioxidant assays are used to assess the antioxi­
dant potential of the extracts and fractions of banana peel. They are
essential for determining the ability of the chemical components in ba­
nana peel extracts to scavenge free radicals such as 2,2-diphenyl-1-pic­
rylhydrazyl (DPPH) and 2,2′ -azinobis-(3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-
sulphonate, as well as the metal ion chelation-reducing capacity, as
measured by the ferric-reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) assay.
Table 4 shows the phenolic content and antioxidant properties possessed
by banana peel.
More than 40 compounds from banana peel have been identified on
the basis of individual phenolics with a total content of 47 mg of gallic
acid equivalent (GAE)/g dry matter (DM) (Vu et al., 2018). The phenolic
compounds found in the banana peel can be further categorised into four
subgroups, namely flavonols, hydroxycinnamic acids, flavan-3-ols and
catecholamines (Vu et al., 2018). The proposed mechanism of the
antioxidant effect of these phenolic compounds by preventing reactive
oxygen species (ROS) formation, direct ROS scavenging and induction of
antioxidant enzymes is illustrated in Fig. 3.
A moderate level of ROS within the body is vital and involves several
roles in maintaining homeostasis, particularly cellular signal trans­
duction (Valko et al., 2007). However, a high level of ROS concentration
may cause abnormal cell signalling which is followed by cell damages
(Winterbourn, 2008). Multiple studies have been linked ROS with a
number of chronic diseases, such as neurodegeneration, cancer, diabetes
and inflammation (Świetek et al., 2019; Mittal et al., 2014). Since
phenolic compounds consist of a significant number of hydroxy groups,
it may boost ROS scavenging capability (Świetek et al., 2019).
Table 5 depicts some of the major identified phenolic compounds in
the banana peel. In plantain cultivar peel, flavonols are the most
abundant group of phenolic compounds. Rutin and myricetin are the
predominant phenolic compounds in the flavonol profile of plantain and
dessert banana peels (Tsamo et al., 2015). Rutin content is similar to
those recorded for buckwheat flour (0.08%–0.20%) (Kreft et al., 2006),
which is an important known source of rutin food. The high FRAP ac­
tivity in peel is attributed to phenols and carotenoids. Carotenoids have
a number of beneficial effects on human health, such as being a pre­
cursor to vitamin A, an antioxidant, anticancer, anti-obesity and
anabolic on bone components.
The presence of natural components is significantly influenced by
genetic factors, the production area, growing conditions, fruit maturity,
post-harvest management and processing application (Vu et al., 2018).
The phenolic content, flavonoid content and antioxidant capacity of
mature and overripe fruit peel are lower than those of green peel
(Sundaram et al. 2011). Likewise, as the peel changed from green to
yellow, many individual compounds such as naringin, rutin, norepi­
nephrine and dopamine are reduced. A study by Vu et al. (2019) showed
that the antioxidant capacity of peel increased as the banana ripened
and reduced once it became overripe, indicating that the antioxidant
properties are correlated with phenolic components instead of chloro­
phylls and carotenoids. Therefore, the stage of maturation must be
considered on the basis of its potential use. In line with a study by
Sundaram et al. (2011), due to the high content of polyphenol in unripe
banana peel, the inhibitory effect against oxidative hemolysis of human

Table 4
Total Phenolic Content and Antioxidant Properties of Banana Peel.
Cultivar Genome Total Phenolic Content ABTS assay DPPH assay FRAP assay Reference
a d
Musa paradisiaca AAB 7.71 84.73 – – Agama-Acevedo et al. (2016)
Local banana in Mexico – 4.95a – 9.23c 0.32f Hernández-Carranza et al. (2016)
Musa paradisiaca – 55.5b – 66.9e 1.6j Devatkal et al. (2014)
Cavendish AAA 29.2a 242.2d – 14.0d Rebello et al. (2014)
Mas AA 12.24a,k – 3.47c,k 16.73c,k Sulaiman et al. (2011)
Kapas AA 3.98a,k – 1.65c,k 12.27c,k
Berangan AAA 7.18a,k – 2.68c,k 13.29c,k
Rastali AAB 9.86a,k – 2.42c,k 16.36c,k
Raja AAB 12.27a,k – 0.83c,k 2.85c,k
Nangka AAB 7.48a,k – 2.92c,k 13.63c,k
Awak ABB 13.00a,k – 3.11c,k 17.64c,k
Nipah BBB 6.59a,k – 3.95c,k 13.03c,k
Ambon Lumut – 19.8b,j 67.88h,g 54.30h – Fidrianny et al. (2014)
Raja Bulu – 13.1b,j 66.17h,g 51.84h –
Muli – 34.8b,j 62.56h,g 60.24h –
Kedali AB 0.15i 48.0g,f 27.0g,f – Baskar et al. (2011)
Karpooravalli ABB 0.19i 54.0g,f 63.0g,f –
Monthan AAB 0.32i 48.0g,f 65.0g,f –
Nendran AAB 0.49i 60.0g,f 55.0g,f –
Poovan AAB 0.39i 72.0g,f 57.0g,f –
Pachainadan AAB 0.30i 68.0g,f 42.0g,f –
Rasthali AAB 0.60i 80.0g,f 42.0g,f –
Robusta AAB 0.20i 72.0g,f 55.0g,f –
Sevvazhai AAA 0.46i 55.0g,f 65.0g,f –

“-“ no reported data in cited article.

a
mg GAE/g DM.
b
mg GAE/g sample.
c
mg trolox equivalent (TE)/g DM.
d
mM TE/g DM.
e
g Ascorbic acid Equivalent/100 g DM.
f
Report for concentration of 1 mg/ml.
g
% discoloration.
h
report for ethanolic extracts.
i
mg Catechol Equivalents/g.
j
Absorbance at 700 nm.
k
Report for aqueous extract.

5
H. Mohd Zaini et al. Journal of Functional Foods 92 (2022) 105054

Table 5 2014). However, Mordi et al. (2016) reported a high antibacterial po­
Identified Phenolic Compounds in Banana Peel. tential of oil from methanolic peel extract (30 mg/mL) against several
Phenolic compounds Banana Peel Quantity References bacterial species. This finding is likely due to the presence of 2-methyl-5-
(1-methylethyl) phenol in peel, which is a potent antimicrobial com­
Flavanols:
Kaempferol Red banana 28.80 µg/mL Avram et al. (2022) pound. The presence of tannins has also demonstrated some antimi­
Yellow banana 9.30 µg/mL Avram et al. (2022) crobial activities against the three tested microorganisms (E. coli,
Isoquercitrin Red banana 14.54 µg/mL Avram et al. (2022) S. aureus and P. aeruginosa) (Aboul-Enin et al., 2016).
Yellow banana 10.47 µg/mL Avram et al. (2022)
Rutin M. paradisiaca 973.08 mg/ Behiry et al. (2019)
100 g DE a
3.3. Anticancer agent
Myricetin M. paradisiaca 11.52 mg/ Behiry et al. (2019)
100 g DE Given their additive and synergistic effects, the complex mixture of
Naringenin M. paradisiaca 8.47 mg/100 Behiry et al. (2019) phytochemical constituents found in fruit and vegetable extracts is more
g DE
effective at preventing cancer than their individual components. In
Hydorxycinnamic
acids: addition, edible phytochemicals provide a readily available, suitable
Ferulic acid M. paradisiaca 1.63 mg/100 Behiry et al. (2019) and attainable basis for cancer control and management. In a study by
g DE Dahham et al. (2015), the banana peel extract prepared from hexane
Ferulic acid 60 mg/100 g Saeed et al. (2021)
–
solvent exhibited the highest toxicity towards HCT-116 (colorectal
DM b
Cinnamic acid Karpooravalli 1.93 ng/g Tallapally et al.
carcinoma cell line from humans) with 64.02% cell inhibition of cell
(ABB) (2020) proliferation. In a separate study, Durgadevi et al. (2019) demonstrated
Alpha- Karpooravalli 40.66 ng/g Tallapally et al. that the aqueous methanol extract of Nendran banana peel had a sig­
hydroxycinnamic (ABB) (2020) nificant cytotoxic activity against MCF-7 breast cell lines. Vijayakumar
acid
et al. (2017) demonstrated that banana peel crude extract could also be
Sinapic acid Karpooravalli 10.29 ng/g Tallapally et al.
(ABB) (2020) used to synthesise gold nanoparticles that inhibited the biofilm forma­
p-Coumaric acid Karpooravalli 8.05 ng/g Tallapally et al. tion of Gram-positive bacteria Enterococcus faecalis, which were cyto­
(ABB) (2020) toxic to human lung cancer cells.
Catechlolamine: It was postulated that the flavonoids content in banana peel
Dopamine Grande Naine 1.72 mg/g González-
(AAA) DM Montelongo et al.
contributed to its anticancer properties. Flavonoids could inhibit the
(2010) ROS-scavenging enzyme activities, induce apoptosis, arrest cell cycle
Dopamine Gruesa (AAA) 1.17 mg/g González- and subsequently suppress tumor production . The proposed mechanism
DM Montelongo et al. of action of flavonoids as an anticancer agent is depicted in Fig. 4. In
(2010)
another study by Phacharapiyangkul et al. (2019), the ferulic acid that is
L-dopa Grande Naine 0.31 mg/g González-
(AAA) DM Montelongo et al. highly identified in sucrier banana peel potentially act as anti-
(2010) melanogenesis by regulating the growth factor of vascular endothethe­
L-dopa Gruesa (AAA) 0.56 mg/g González- lial expression, initiating nitric oxide synthase, and acting as a sup­
Montelongo et al. pressor gene of tumor.
(2010)

“-“ Not reported in cited article. 4. Anti-Nutrient composition

a
DE: dry extract.
b
DM: Dry matter.
red blood cells is better than the ripe banana peel extract.
3.2. Antimicrobial agent
Historically, herbal medicines have been used to treat various in­
fectious diseases and have been found to be effective in a number of
instances. The majority of natural medicines are derived from plant
materials such as leaves, flowers, fruits and stems. These extracts may be
used to develop novel antimicrobial compounds with new chemical
structures and mechanisms of action that will serve as a barrier against
multidrug-resistant microorganisms. A previous study discovered that
the antimicrobial properties of banana peel were effective against
Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus cereus, Salmonella enter­
itidis and Escherichia coli (Mokbel & Hashinaga, 2005).
Based on a separate study conducted by Krishna et al. (2013),
ethanol extracts of M. paradisiaca cv. Puttabale and M. acuminata cv.
Grand naine demonstrated a broad spectrum of antibacterial activity
against the tested microorganisms, with particularly high inhibitory
potency against P. vulgaris and S. paratyphi. Phytochemical analysis
revealed the presence of biologically active compounds such as glyco­
sides, flavonoids, terpenoids and tannins. These derivatives may be used
in the treatment of clinical pathogenic bacteria.
Musa acuminata peel methanolic extract exhibited variable inhibi­
tory activity against Escherichia coli (ATCC 25922), S. aureus (ATCC
25923), Lactobacillus casei, Bacillus spp., Pseudomonas aeruginosa and
Saccharomyces cerevisiae at a 300 mg/mL concentration (Niamah et al.,
Despite numerous reports on the potential use of banana peel as a
food ingredient, previous research has also focussed on the anti-nutrient
content in banana peel. Banana peel contains several anti-nutritional
factors such as tannins, oxalate and phytate, which may cause adverse
effects such as depressed growth, reduced nutrient intake and damage to
vital organs in the body (Arslan & Özcan, 2010). Amongst these anti-
nutrient compounds, high concentration of glycosides is founded in
banana peel (Ozabor et al., 2020). Glycosides are carcinogens that can
be converted to hydrogen cyanide (HCN) via hydrolysis. HCN is a highly
toxic substance formed when acids react with metal cyanides.
Modification of processing conditions and elimination or reduction
of certain undesirable components of food may be necessary to minimise
the antinutrient compound found in banana peel. Table 6 summarises
the anti-nutrient composition in banana peel along with its processing
condition.
A high-oxalate diet increases the risk of hyperoxaluria (Hulton,
2016), which can result in renal inflammation and acute renal failure in
individuals with impaired kidney function (Getting et al., 2013). How­
ever, despite the differences in processing method, the oxalate content in
banana peel still falls below the threshold value that can be taken by the
body (40–50 mg/day). The thermal treatment might destroy the total
oxalate content of banana peel (Lawal & Adebowale, 2004). Phytate in
diet lowers blood glucose and lipid levels and aids in preventing calcium
crystallisation in renal organs, such as the kidney (Schlemmer et al.
2009). The phytate content was consistently low, with long-term levels
between 1% and 6%, which can impair mineral bioavailability. As
shown in Table 6, banana peel contained a safe amount of phytate
comparable to cereals, which contained the highest amount of phytic

6
H. Mohd Zaini et al. Journal of Functional Foods 92 (2022) 105054

Fig. 4. Mechanism of action of flavonoids as anticancer agent.

economy. The rate of recovery of a chemical entity is largely determined

Table 6 by the by-product cellular matrix and the extraction technique applied
Anti-nutrient composition in banana peel along with its processing condition.
(Gençdağ et al., 2021). Table 7 shows the different technological
Processing Anti-nutrient Composition Reference treatments conducted on a banana peel and the properties of compo­
Method
Phytate Alkaloids Oxalate Glycosides nents obtained.
Fermentation 9.27 – 8.28 149.02 Ozabor et al.
mg/g mg/g mg/g (2020) 6. Application of banana peel in food sector
Microwave- 4.07 % 5.45 mg 0.85 mg – Abou-Arab
drying % % et al. (2017) Previous studies have used ripe and unripe banana peels to enhance
Boiled banana 2.11 % 1.76 % 40.2 % – Oyeyinka &
peel extract Afolayan
the nutritional and physicochemical properties of a variety of food
Boiled plantain 2.34 % 0.45 % 20.0 % – (2019) products (e.g. bakery, noodles, jelly and meat products). Moreover,
peel extract banana peel has a significantly higher amount of ash, protein, fat, crude
Air and oven- 0.28 – 0.51 – Anhwange and dietary fibre than pulp, which has enabled banana peel foodstuffs
dried mg/g mg/g (2009)
with great functionalities (Nasrin et al., 2015; Agama et al., 2016). A
high concentration of banana peel in food formulas may increase the
acid and approximately 0.72–6.39, 0.39–7.30, 0.06–8.70, 0.38–1.16, phytochemical and antioxidant potency. However, it may result in food
0.54–1.46 and 0.42–1.16 g/100 g (dw) of corn, wheat, rice, barley, rye products with poor physicochemical properties and sensory unaccept­
and oat, respectively (Gupta, Gangoliya, & Singh, 2015; Song, El Shei­ ability. Thus, investigating the appropriate concentrations of banana
kha, & Hu, 2019). peel in various food products is necessary. To date, Table 8 summarize
the application of banana peel in food industry.
5. Technological treatment of banana peel
6.1. Meat product
By-products of the manufacturing process include damaged raw
materials, which require extensive waste management, recycling, or In a study by Zaini et al. (2020), banana peel powder was obtained
disposal. Banana peels consist of various compounds of interest. This from a Saba variety (genome BBB) to develop a chicken sausage with
particular component required technological treatment or step to be enhanced dietary fibre content. Chemical analysis showed a significant
extracted out from the raw fruit residue. The recovery of valuable increase in ash and dietary fibre compared with chicken sausage without
compounds from massive amounts of by-products has the potential to the addition of banana peel powder. A positive outcome can also be
contribute to global food sustainability, the environment, and the observed by decreasing the total fat content from 9.18% in the control

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H. Mohd Zaini et al. Journal of Functional Foods 92 (2022) 105054

Table 7
Different Technological Treatments Conducted on A Banana Peel and The Properties of Components Obtained.
Banana Peel Extracted component Technological treatment Properties of extracted component References

M. ABB Dietary fibre BP powder was wet milled and washed with tap
water prior to dietary fibre extraction.
Unripe Pectin Dry BP powder were homogenized in boiling
M. AA, M. ethanol to inactivate the possible endogenous
AAA, M. enzyme and remove alcohol-soluble solids. Pectin
ABB extracted using 6% citric acid solution
M. ABB Cellulose The BP powder was defatted with ethanol, and
protein was removed with sodium hydroxide. The
defatted and protein removed BP sample was then
bleached with hydrogen peroxide to obtain the
cellulose.
– Pectinases BP powder added into a basal medium containing
K2HPO4, KH2PO4, KNO3, and yeast extract. Then
the sample was incubating in the solution at 37 ◦ C
and a 150-rpm shaking speed.
– Carbohydrate (pectin, Citric acid and alkaline solutions (NaOH and KOH)
xylose, were used to pre-treat banana peels, followed by
xylooligosaccharides) enzymatic hydrolysis (Cellic® CTec2).
- High dietary fibre content with IDF/SDF ratio of 4:1. Wachirasiri
- High water holding and oil holding capacity et al. (2009)
- High pectin yield- Kluai nam wa variety Kamshucarit
(M. ABB) has 66.67% anhydrouronic acid (AUA) content, et al. (2018)
indicate a good purity level to be used as food additives
- The pectins recovered from banana peels were classified
as high methoxyl pectins with a degree of esterification
ranging from 63.15 to 72.03%, which was equivalent to
that of common pectin sources.
- The cellulose extracted from BP contained a high Singanusong
caloric content than commercial cellulose. et al. (2013)
- The water and oil retention capacity are higher than the
commercial cellulose. These properties are crucial not
only in food but also in human gastrointestinal function.
This enzyme’s hydrolysis product of banana peel powder Doan et al.
had prebiotic effects on the four lactic acid bacteria (2021)
studied, implying that B. amyloliquefaciens TKU050
pectinase could be a promising choice for producing
prebiotics.
The deconstruction of a banana peel revealed that Pereira et al.
essential carbohydrates such as pectin, xylose, and (2021)
xylooligosaccharides may be extracted with a high yield
from its cell walls. However, parameters such as the type
of chemical employed for acid and alkaline
pretreatment, as well as the extraction conditions, need
further investigation in order to improve the release of
the compounds of interest.

sausage to 7.67% in chicken sausage added with 2% banana peel pow­
der. The authors also reported a significant improvement in water-
holding capacity (WHC) and cooking yield of the chicken sausage
added with 2% banana peel powder. However, the addition of more than
2% of banana peel powder adversely affected the colour and texture of a
product, which later reduced the sensory acceptance score. Moreover,
adding 2% of banana peel powder to sausage inhibited lipid oxidation
up to 55% compared with control, which was refrigerated at ± 4 ◦ C for
30 days, implying its antioxidant properties.
In another study by Devatkal et al. (2014), the water extract of ba­
nana peel in raw poultry meat showed a reduction in thiobarbituric acid
reactive substances (TBARS) up to 38.3% during 8 days of refrigerated
storage. Although BHT effectively reduced the TBARS value (56.8%) in
raw poultry meat, banana peel extract still showed a higher TBARS
reduction than sapodilla extract, which only reduced 37.2% TBARS. In
another finding by Ali et al. (2019), a reduction in peroxide value (PV)
was observed on fish ball treated with total polyphenol extract from
banana peel (0.5%, 1.0% and 1.5%) stored at 4 ◦ C and − 18 ◦ C. PV of the
treatments increased until day 6 during storage at 4 ◦ C and then
decreased at the end of the last storage interval (day 9). Similarly, the
treated fish ball PV increased until day 30 of storage at − 18 ◦ C and then
decreased at the end of the last storage interval (day 30). The decrease of
the PV at the end of the storage may occur because of hydroperoxide
decomposition into secondary oxidative products (Vanitha et al., 2015).
properties of Egyptian baladi flatbread. The chemical composition re­
sults showed the increase of protein, fat and ash on Egyptian baladi
flatbread.
Moreover, the carbohydrate content decreased from 74.93% in
control bread to 50.5% and 44.34% with the substitution of banana peel
at 5% and 10%, respectively. Some studies provided evidence that car­
bohydrate restriction improved blood glucose control, insulin resistance
and obesity (Yancy et al., 2005). Low-carbohydrate bread may be
beneficial for some diabetic patients in optimising their blood glucose
regulation or for patients who prefer to eat fewer carbohydrates.
Regarding the acceptance in the same study, flatbread with banana peel
had similar sensorial acceptance as the control flatbread, with only a
slight loss of acceptance in the texture, aroma and colour. In another
study by Kurhade et al. (2015), the effect of banana peel powder on the
bioactive constituents and microstructural quality of chapatti was
evaluated. Chapatti dough was prepared from 5%, 10%, 15% and 20%
banana peel on a flour basis. Chapatti incorporated with banana peel
powder showed a significantly higher total phenolic content and flavo­
noid content than the control. Chapatti incorporated with 20% banana
peel showed DPPH radical scavenging activity up to 68.3%. In addition,
chapatti prepared from dough added with banana peel powder (5% and
10%) produced soft chapatti.
6.3. Cookies and biscuits

6.2. Bread
Bread is a staple diet consumed daily, and in many countries, con­
sumers highly consider its quality and sensory attributes. Bread is made
primarily from refined wheat flour; thus, it contains small amounts of
fibre, vitamins and other phytochemicals that help prevent various
diseases (Capurso & Capurso, 2020). As bread is consumed widely in
international food markets, fortifying bread with various dietary fibres
and functional compounds to achieve the advantage of bread as a carrier
of health-promoting compounds has become an increasing trend of
research (Khoozani et al., 2020). Eshak (2016) reported the effect of two
different concentrations of banana peels (5% and 10%) as a partial
replacement for wheat flour on the physicochemical and sensory
In the research by Arun et al. (2015), functional cookies were
developed from Nendran variety banana flour at the ratio of 5%, 10%
and 15% without altering the total wheat flour content. The developed
cookies possessed high total dietary fibre (15.78%–36.74%), ash and
moisture content. Spread ratios, breaking intensity and cookie index
decreased with the increase of the percentage of banana peel flour.
Compared with the control cookie (3.21 mg GAE), the addition of ba­
nana peel flour steadily increased the phenolic content from 4.36 mg
GAE to 5.28 mg GAE. With regard to sensory acceptability, cookies with
10% banana peel flour are more desirable because of the improvement
of colour, taste and texture compared with the other formulations. In
another study by Rehman et al. (2013), xylitol was produced from ba­
nana peel and applied in a rusk. Xylitol is a five-carbon sugar alcohol

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H. Mohd Zaini et al. Journal of Functional Foods 92 (2022) 105054

Table 8
Summary of Banana Peel Application in Food Industry.
Food Product Banana peel Composition level in food Purpose Effect of application References
variety formula / form

Chicken M. balbisiana 2%, 4% and 6% / flour To enhance the dietry fibre content - Significant increase in WHC, TDF and ash Zaini et al.
sausage basis content. (2020)
- Delayed lipid oxidation
Ground M. paradisiaca 2% / water extract To evaluate the antioxidant activites in - Banana peel water extract significantly reduce Devatkal et al.
chicken ground chicken patties stored the free radical scavenging activity. (2014)
patties aerobically for 8 days at 4 ◦ C.
Egyptian – 5% and 10% / flour basis To determine the effect of banana peel - The protein, ash and fat content rised. Eshak (2016)
balady flour substitution on the However, the carbohydrate decreased
flatbread physicochemical and sensory properties significantly
of Egyptian balady flatbread
Chapatti 5%, 10%, 15% and 20% / To develop a functional chapatti with - The total phenolic content and flavonoid Kurhade et al.
flour basis the incorporation of banana peel flour. content of the banana peel powder-infused (2015)
chapatti were substantially greater.- Chapatti
with 20% banana peel had a DPPH radical
scavenging activity of up to 68.3 percent.
Furthermore, chapatti made with dough added
with banana peel flour (5% and 10%)
yielded soft chapatti.
Cookies M. paradisiaca 5%, 10% and 15% / flour To develop cookies with plantain peel - The developed cookies possessed high total Arun et al.
basis flour that may be beneficial in the dietary fibre, ash, moisture content and (2015)
management and prevention of lifestyle- phenolic content.
related diseases. - Cookies with 10% banana peel flour are more
desirable because of the improvement of colour,
taste and texture compared with the other
formulations
Xylitol – Flour with sucrose and To utilise waste banana peels to produce The present study showed that xylitol from Rehman et al.
xylitol in the ratio of xylitol and to test its effect on the banana peel decreased the water activity of (2013)
100:0, 75:25, 50:50, 25:75 physicochemical qualities of rusks. rusk, resulting in high shelf-stability of the
and 0:100 product. Rusk with sucrose and xylitol in the
ratio of 25:75 and 0:100 obtained the highest
taste score.

Edible food – – To develop edible food wrapper from - The tensile properties were similar to those of Santhoskumar
wrapper banana peel. polyethylene. et al. (2019)
-The inorganic nutrient enhances the
mechanical properties. Moreover, these films
are easily accessible and compostable as
itbiodegrades fully in 45 days.
Bioplastic – – To develop bioplastic film from a - High tensile strength was observed in the Sultan & Johari
film combination of two biopolymers, bioplastic film composed of two biopolymers (2017)
namely banana peel and corn starch. derived from banana peel and corn starch.
- The elongation at break decreased as the
percentage of green banana peel flour in the
polyvinyl alcohol matrix increased up to 20%.

produced naturally from plants and agricultural materials. It has a
similar level of sweetness to sucrose, but it contains less than 40% cal­
ories and less than 75% carbohydrate and is metabolised and absorbed
slowly compared with sucrose in the human body. Banana peel has been
proven to be a good source of xylose production. Xylose can be used as a
substrate for the production of xylitol by banana peel acid hydrolysis.
Detoxification of peel hydrolysate by neutralisation, charcoal treatment
and vacuum evaporation improved the yield of xylitol. In the same
study, five formulated rusks were prepared from commercial flour with
sucrose and xylitol in the ratio of 100:0, 75:25, 50:50, 25:75 and 0:100.
The present study showed that xylitol from banana peel decreased the
water activity of rusk, resulting in high shelf-stability of the product.
Rusk with sucrose and xylitol in the ratio of 25:75 and 0:100 obtained
the highest taste score.
6.4. Food packaging
Santhoskumar et al. (2019) demonstrated an increase in tensile
strength of an edible food wrapper made from banana peel. The tensile
properties were similar to those of polyethylene because of the fibre
content of banana peels containing inorganic nutrients. The inorganic
nutrient enhances the mechanical properties. Moreover, these films are
easily accessible and compostable. As the banana film is exposed to
biotic bacteria following ASTMD 5338 under controlled composting
conditions, it biodegrades fully in 45 days. In another study by Sultan &
Johari (2017), high tensile strength was observed in the bioplastic film
composed of two biopolymers derived from banana peel and corn starch.
Apart from the high tensile strength, the elongation at break decreased
as the percentage of green banana peel flour in the polyvinyl alcohol
matrix increased up to 20%. The previous findings indicated that edible
films derived from banana peels can address the increasing industry
efficiency. In addition, they improved the general economy through
producing a variety of products where plastic wrapping was used in the
manufacturing process.
7. Safety and regulatory aspects
Although banana peel may offer a good perspective as a value-added
ingredient in food products, detailed research, legislation, and regula­
tions are required to guarantee its quality, suitability, and long-term
consumers’ safety. The publication on which safety evaluation is
focused is also limited; hence, the safety assurance of banana peel
application is far from an unavoidable step for most established studies.
Straightforward analytical tools have been used to determine the
physicochemical properties of material intended for human consump­
tion, such as nutritional content, colour, and moisture content. Moisture

9
H. Mohd Zaini et al.
content evaluation is important as it relates to bacterial viability, storage
stability, and the overall quality of the food material (Li et al., 2018);
(Iriondo-DeHond et al., 2020). According to (Vu et al., 2017), drying BP
using microwave irradiation at a power level of 960 W for 6 min was the
optimal condition for minimizing bioactive and antioxidant loss, fol­
lowed by freeze-drying, vacuum oven, hot air oven, dehumidified air,
and sun drying. A significant antioxidant degradation may be the result
of the high-temperature drying process (Balli et al., 2021). As a result,
more research is needed to determine the optimal time and temperature
variations to minimize the severe colour changes and unpleasant BP
texture while preserving the bioactive components (Olusegun-Omolola
et al., 2018). When BP is used in a food product that requires additional
heating, such as meat products, pasta, or cookies, recovering bioactive
can be difficult. Certain bioactives can change their solubility and
availability when they interact with other dietary matrices (gluten,
starch) (Balli et al., 2021). Improper post-harvest handling and storage,
such as leaving the BP in constant contact with soil, renders the BP
microbiologically inappropriate for use in the production of functional
components (de Camargo et al., 2018); (El Barnossi et al., 2021).
Bananas stored in saturated humidity conditions are prone to peel
splitting as early as 3 – 6 days after ripening induction (Brat et al., 2016).
Keeping at low-temperature conditions is thought to be versatile for
extending postharvest storage time in most fruits. Bananas, on the other
hand, are susceptible to chilling injury, which can occur at temperatures
as low as 12 ◦ C (Chen et al., 2008). Chilling injury in bananas was
indicated by peel discoloration, brown spots, or black strips (Chen et al.,
2008). Since there is no established legislation in this regard, the authors
found it difficult to obtain the literature that marks the proper BP post-
harvest management intended for human consumption.
The use of BP in the manufacture of new products may also raise
concerns in several areas, including food safety and the environment.
Given this reason, a thorough assessment of the risk of contamination
(organic and inorganic compounds) transfer to valorized by-products
and enriched food produced should be conducted (Socas-Rodriguex
et al., 2021). It is also worth mentioning that fruit peels are more likely
to develop or accumulate hazardous substances such as hydrophobic
organic contaminants (Sójka et al., 2015). Similar challenges arise
during the enrichment or extraction of bioactive substances. In one
study, Moncalvo et al. (2016) found that ethanolic extraction of grape
skin for the purpose of enriching phenolic components resulted in the
accumulation of metal, pesticide, and ochratoxin in the final extract. As
previously stated, the lack of related references and no established
regulation in this area is a barrier to effectively assessing BP’s food
safety. In this regard, the authors propose that future research may
address the gap by combining studies on the physicochemical and safety
evaluation of valorized banana peel.
8. Future prospective and conclusion
Based on the previous empirical paper, banana peel has great
application potential in the food-processing fields as an alternative
ingredient. With regard to nutritional content, banana peel is appreci­
ated for its high dietary fibre, which promotes healthy digestion. Peel
can be exploited as a commercial source of dietary fibre, as banana is
widely cultivated worldwide. Based on previous literature, several food
products incorporated with banana peel show an enhanced nutritional
value and functional properties compared with conventional food. The
use of banana peel can have positive implications: firstly, banana peel
may benefit the environment by using secondary processing materials,
and secondly, it may provide a new perspective for consumers and
producers with regard to developing value-added food products.
On the contrary, the mechanism of action of the chemical compo­
nents of banana peel in combating various diseases or infections remains
unclear. The use of various methods, such as genomics, transcriptomics,
proteomics and metabolomics, can also provide comprehensive under­
standing of the molecular processes that underpin the health-promoting
10
Journal of Functional Foods 92 (2022) 105054
properties of banana peel, thereby improving our knowledge of banana
peel phytochemicals as functional ingredients.
Bakar et al. (2018) analysed the functional properties of banana peel
such as WHC and oil-holding capacity (OHC) to extend its potential use.
Based on previous reports, four local Malaysian banana peels (Nangka,
Tanduk, Berangan and Rastali) have WHC ranging from 5.76 g/g to 6.35
g/g with a water absorption index from 7.58 g/g to 8.11 g/g. In the same
study, the Berangan banana peel powder (2.22 g/g) presents a good
OHC compared with durian seed gum (0.832–1.69 g/g) (Amid & Mir­
hosseini, 2012), tamarind seed mucilage powder (0.068–0.133 g/g)
(Alpizar-Reyes et al., 2017) and persimmon peel (0.99–1.04 g/g)
(Ramachandraiah & Chin, 2016). The value of WHC and OHC in banana
peel flour demonstrate its functionality in food development, particu­
larly as an emulsifier in high-fat food product.
For human consumption, some studies have advocated for the con­
sumption of fruit peels because of their high antioxidant and bioactive
content, which may aid in the prevention of chronic diseases and in­
crease the nutritional value of foods. Peels of commonly consumed fruits
(Elbadrawy and Sello, 2016; Marquetti et al., 2018) and exotic fruit
(Contreras-Calderón, Calderón-Jaimes, Guerra-Hernández, & García-­
Villanova, 2011) can also be used. Several authors have attempted to
prepare food from fruit peels for human consumption (Wolfe and Liu,
2003), and the public acceptability test has yielded results of up to 80%.
Apart from improving nutritional status and providing important anti­
oxidant compounds for disease prevention, studies have shown that fruit
peel may also be used to aid in the treatment of acute liver failure (Mosa
and Khalil, 2015).The latest scientific knowledge of the use of banana
peel as a possible source of functional ingredients has been outlined in
this study. Considering that banana peel extract is non-toxic to normal
human cells, it can be used as a natural source of antioxidants. Although
raw banana peels have many health benefits, they are not widely
consumed because of their unpleasant taste. By turning raw banana peel
into a food product, it can provide tasty and nutritious food for
continuous consumption.
9. Ethics statement
The authors whose names are listed immediately below certify that
this article does not contain any studies with human or animal subjects.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgement
The authors gratefully acknowledge financial assistance from Uni­
versiti Malaysia Sabah, Niche Scheme Grant (SDN0039-0019).
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