Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition

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Cereal grain-based functional beverages: from

cereal grain bioactive phytochemicals to beverage
processing technologies, health benefits and
product features

Yun Xiong, Pangzhen Zhang, Robyn Dorothy Warner, Shuibao Shen &
Zhongxiang Fang

To cite this article: Yun Xiong, Pangzhen Zhang, Robyn Dorothy Warner, Shuibao Shen
& Zhongxiang Fang (2022) Cereal grain-based functional beverages: from cereal grain
bioactive phytochemicals to beverage processing technologies, health benefits and
product features, Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 62:9, 2404-2431, DOI:
10.1080/10408398.2020.1853037

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Published online: 01 Dec 2020.

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CRITICAL REVIEWS IN FOOD SCIENCE AND NUTRITION
2022, VOL. 62, NO. 9, 2404–2431
https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2020.1853037

REVIEW

Cereal grain-based functional beverages: from cereal grain bioactive

phytochemicals to beverage processing technologies, health benefits and
product features
Yun Xionga, Pangzhen Zhanga, Robyn Dorothy Warnera, Shuibao Shenb,c, and Zhongxiang Fanga
a
School of Agriculture and Food, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia; bCollege
of Animal Science and Technology, Guangxi University, Nanning, China; cTaiyuan Brand Will Firm Biotechnology Development Co, Ltd,
Taiyuan, China

ABSTRACT KEYWORDS
Increased consumer awareness of health and wellness has promoted a high demand for foods Cereals; beverages;
and beverages with functional and therapeutic properties. Cereals, apart from being important sta- functional foods;
ple crops and primary sources of energy and nutrition, are replete with bioactive phytochemicals phytochemicals;
health benefits
with health properties. Cereal grains contain a diverse range of bioactive phytochemicals including
phenolic compounds, dietary fibers, carotenoids, tocols, phytosterols, c-oryzanol, and phytic acid
and therefore have great potential for processing into functional beverages. Although there are a
variety of cereal grain-based beverages produced world-wide, very little scientific and techno-
logical attention has been paid to them. In this review, we have discussed cereal grain-based func-
tional beverages based on 3 main categories: cereal grain-based milk alternatives, roasted cereal
grain teas, fermented nonalcoholic cereal grain beverages. The processing techniques, health
properties and product features of these beverages are elaborated, and the challenges and future
perspectives are proposed. As the food market becomes increasingly diverse, cereal grain-based
beverages could be a promising new category of health functional beverages in our daily life.

Introduction
Cereals are one of the most important crops in the world.
Since the beginning of civilization, cereals have been used as
staple foods for both human consumption and animal feed
(Ragaee et al. 2013). Today, cereals account for more than
74% of the world’s total cultivated area and constitute 60%,
by weight, of the world’s food production (FAO (Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nation) 2018).
Cereals are generally defined as any grass from the Poaceae
family (also called Gramineae family) that is cultivated for
the edible components of its grain or seed (botanically
named as caryopsis); cereal is often referred to the resulting
“grain” itself (Srikaeo, Grumezescu, and Holban 2020).
Some grains of non-grass families, such as buckwheat, from
the Polygonaceae family, and quinoa, from the
Amaranthaceae family, have similar nutritional composition
to cereals and are often grouped with cereals, although sci-
entifically they are defined as pseudocereals (Alvarez-Jubete,
Arendt, and Gallagher 2009). According to FAO, corn, rice,
wheat, barley, sorghum, millet, oat, rye and buckwheat are
the main cereals in the world in terms of production quan-
tity (FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nation) 2018).
Cereals are an important part of the human diet provid-
ing a major source of energy, carbohydrates, proteins, B
vitamins and minerals; they are also rich in various bioactive
phytochemicals with potential health-promoting effects
(Ragaee et al. 2013). Bioactive phytochemicals, such as phen-
olic compounds, carotenoids, phytosterols and dietary fibers,
are extra-nutritional constituents typically present in small
quantities in plants (Kris-Etherton et al. 2002). These bio-
active phytochemicals often play specific roles in human
physiological functions including antioxidant, anti-inflam-
matory, regulation of hormones, enhancement of the
immune system, etc. (Xiong et al. 2019b; Johnson 2013). It
is the presence of these bioactive phytochemicals in cereals
that positively affect human health and for this reason are of
specific interest (Liu 2007).
With consumers’ increasing awareness of the importance
of nutrition and health, food is not only regarded as a
medium for satiety but also as a means for disease preven-
tion and control; such desire has created a rapidly increasing
demand for functional foods with health benefits and
opened up markets for a broad range of processed foods
including beverages with specific health attributes (Ghoshal
and Kansal 2019; Nazir et al. 2019). Although there has
been no standard or consistent definition for functional
foods and beverages, it is generally agreed that functional
foods and beverages should be at least a source of bioactive
compounds (Martirosyan and Singh 2015; Nazir et al. 2019).

CONTACT Zhongxiang Fang zhongxiang.fang@unimelb.edu.au School of Agriculture and Food, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, University
of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
ß 2020 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Figure 1. Overview of the raw cereal grains and their final beverage products discussed in the review. All images are obtained from online purchases, free open
sources or our own photography.
There are many epidemiological evidences that consumption
of whole grain cereals protects the body against various
types of chronic diseases such as diabetes, cardiovascular
diseases and cancers (Fardet, Rock, and R
em
esy 2008;
Johnson 2013).
Cereals have traditionally been used to make a variety of
health-promoting beverages for local consumption, in many
countries around the world. However, far too little attention
has been paid to cereal grain-based beverages compared to
those made from fruits, vegetables or medical herbals. To
our best knowledge, there is no relevant review or book
available to provide an overview of the current research and
development of cereal grain-based functional beverages.
This work provides a comprehensive review of cereal
grain-based functional beverages, which includes (1) sum-
marizing the main bioactive phytochemicals in cereal whole
grain and their potential health benefits; (2) discussing cur-
rently reported cereal grain-based functional beverages based
on three main categories: cereal grain-based milk alterna-
tives, roasted cereal grain teas and fermented nonalcoholic
cereal grain beverages; (3) elaborating each main category
CRITICAL REVIEWS IN FOOD SCIENCE AND NUTRITION 2405
beverage’s existing research, such as processing techniques,
health benefits and aroma; (4) proposing the challenges and
future perspectives in this research area. This review
focuses on the beverages made primarily from single cereals.
An overall concept of the cereal grains and their final bever-
age products discussed in this review is illustrated in
Figure 1.
Bioactive phytochemicals in cereal grains
The health and functional properties of cereals and cereal
products are mainly attributed to their bioactive phytochem-
icals. Cereal grains have a unique phytochemical profile that
is complementary to fruits and vegetables (Liu 2007). The
main bioactive phytochemicals in the whole grain are phen-
olic compounds, dietary fibers, carotenoids, tocols, phytos-
terol, c-oryzanol and phytic acid (Figure 2). Although there
are several reviews and book chapters have discussed the
bioactive phytochemicals in most cereals (Tokuşoglu and
Hall 2011; Gani et al. 2012; Dykes and Rooney 2007; Fardet,
Rock, and R
em
esy 2008), this section provides important
2406 Y. XIONG ET AL.

Figure 2. Chemical structure of major bioactive phytochemicals in cereal grains.

updates and highlights the main categories and the most millet, oat, rye and buckwheat) as presented in Table 1,
abundant sub-categories of bioactive phytochemicals in the which is important to understand the potential health prop-
nine discussed cereals (corn, rice, wheat, barley, sorghum, erties of different functional beverages in Section “Cereal
Table 1. Summary of main bioactive phytochemicals in whole cereal grains.
Bioactive phytochemicals Corn Rice Wheat Barley Sorghum Millet Oat Rye Buckwheat References
Phenolic compounds (mg 15-619 23-387 21-1269 37-408 87-2960 25-373 8-330 47-222 506-1642 (Fardet, Rock, and R
em
esy 2008;
GAE/100 g) Yang 2010; Liu et al. 2019; Goufo
Phenolic acids (mg/100 g) 60 20-38 134 45-135 39-285 61-391 47 136-137 62 and Trindade 2014; Guo et al.
Ferulic acid þþU þþ þþU þþ þþ þþ þþ þþ 2011; Xiong et al. 2019b; Dykes
p-coumaric acid þ þ þ þ þ þ þ and Rooney 2007; Halland Zhao
Sinapic acid þ þ þ þ þþ 2011; Xiong et al. 2020; Pradeep
Caffeic acid þ þ þ and Sreerama 2015; Rodr
ıguez-
Salicylic acid þþU Garc
ıa et al. 2019; Durazzo et al.
p-Hydroxybenzoic acid þ 2013; Ross et al. 2003; Mattila,
Flavonoids (mg CE/100 g) 26-102 26-53 18-61 37-192 71-612 51-87 21-57 0-20 (QE) 113-398 Pihlava, and Hellstr€om 2005; Gani
Anthocyanidins þþ (P) þþ (P) þ (P) þ (P) þþ (P) (3-DA) þ et al. 2012)
Flavones þ þ þ þ þ
Flavonols þ þ þ þ þþU
Flavan-3-ols þ þ þ
Flavanones þ þ
Other phenolics
Condensed tannins þ (P) þþ (P) þ (P)
Lignans þ þ þ þ þ þþU þþU þ
Alkylresorcinols þ þ þ þ þþU
Avenanthramides þþU

Dietary fibers (%) 9.4-15 1.3-3.9 12.1-13.5 10-15.4 10.7-11.8 6.2-19.1 10.2-14 15.5-19.9 6.3-12.1 (Charalampopoulos et al. 2002;
b-glucans þ þ þ þþU þ þ þþU þ þ Frølich, Åman, and Tetens 2013;
Arabinoxylans þ þþ þþ þþ þ þ þ þþU Saldivar 2016; HeR
s et al. 2014;
Resistant starch þþ þ þþ þ þþ þþ þ þ þþ Izydorczyk and Biliaderis 2000;
Ahmad et al. 2012; Izydorczyk,
Phillips, and Williams 2009; Saeed
et al. 2011; Moreau et al. 2016)

Carotenoids (mg/100 g) 0.9-15.6 (P) 0-3.7 (P) 0.02-0.9 0.01-0.5 (P) 0.4-2.0 (P) 0.06-2.3 (F) 0.03-0.2 n/a n/a (Fardet, Rock, and R
em
esy 2008;
Lutein þþU þ þ þ þþ þþ Moreau et al. 2016; Trono 2019;
Zeaxanthin þþU þ þþ þ þ Hall and Zhao 2011; Shen et al.
a-carotene þ þþ 2015; Ndolo and Beta 2013)
b-carotene þþU þþ þþ þþ
b-cryptoxanthin þ þ

Tocols (mg/100 g) 0.7-8.6 1.7-2.4 1.2-6.0 1.9-6.7 1.0 3.5 1.4-6.0 4.0-5.4 5.5 (Fardet, Rock, and R
em
esy 2008;
a-Tocopherol þþU þþ þ þ þþ þ þþ þ Zielinski, Ciska, and Kozlowska
b-Tocopherol þ 2013; Ehrenbergerova et al. 2006;
c-Tocopherol þþU þ þþU Tiwari and Cummins 2009; Chung
a-Tocotrienol þ þ þþU þþU et al. 2013; Asharani, Jayadeep,
b-Tocotrienol þþ þ þ þ and Malleshi 2010)
c-Tocotrienol þ þ þþ

Phytosterols (mg/100 g) 70-88 29-72 40-74 55-80 46-51 77 35-60 76-101 96 (Gupta, Sharma, and Singh 2018;
Sitosterol þþ þþ þþ þþ þþ þþ þþ þþ þþ Awika and Rooney 2004;
Campesterol þ þ þ þ þ þ þ þ þ Piironen, Toivo, and Lampi 2002;
Stigmasterol þ þ Bhandari and Lee 2013)
Sitostanol þ þ þ þ
Campestanol þ þ
CRITICAL REVIEWS IN FOOD SCIENCE AND NUTRITION

c-Oryzanol (mg/100 g) 3-22 20-122 6-13 0.2-0.4 n/a n/a n/a 2.9-8.6 n/a (Goufo and Trindade 2014; Sing
et al. 2015)
(continued)
2407
Table 1. Continued. 2408
Bioactive phytochemicals Corn Rice Wheat Barley Sorghum Millet Oat Rye Buckwheat References

Phytic acid (mg/100 g) 82-818 57-1082 117-788 533-931 210-1026 117-1097 476-1118 187-844 1170 (Fardet, Rock, and R
em
esy 2008;
Goufo and Trindade 2014;
Steadman et al. 2001)
Only the main categories and their most abundant 4-6 sub-categories of cereal bioactive phytochemicals are included in the table. Values (of each phytochemical category total content) are the data of whole cereal
grains and expressed on a dry matter basis (values on fresh matter basis in literature were converted to a dry matter basis assuming the water content is 13%); and the following signs are used to allow direct visual-
ization of the main sub-category phytochemical profile and their distribution in cereals:
Y. XIONG ET AL.

þ ¼ Main compounds in the cereal;

þþ ¼ Most abundant main compounds in the cereal;
U ¼ Compounds unique to the cereal/cereals (much higher than other cereals or not reported in other cereals);
n/a ¼ No available data or not quantified;
Blank space ¼ Minor compounds in the cereal (in trace amount or not detected);
CE ¼ Catechin equivalent;
GAE ¼ Gallic acid equivalent;
(QE) ¼ mg quercetin equivalent/100g;
(3-DA) ¼ 3-Deoxyanthocyanidins, a special type of anthocyanidins in sorghum;
(P) ¼ Abundant in pigmented cereals (orange, red, purple, brown or black color);
(F) ¼ Foxtail millet data;
(S) ¼ Tartary buckwheat sprouts data;

grain-based milk alternatives” to “Fermented nonalcoholic
cereal grain beverages.”
The research on the health effects of the final cereal bev-
erage/food products is very limited, but research on the
health effects of raw cereal grains, grain extracts, or some
phytochemicals isolated from cereal grains have been well
documented (Hall and Zhao 2011; Fardet, Rock, and
R
em
esy 2008; Liu 2007). Although food processing may alter
or damage some phytochemicals and affects the potential
health benefits, which is inevitable; good processing methods
and practices can not only minimize the losses, but also
reinforce some phytochemicals by the formation of new bio-
active compounds, the release of bound bioactive phyto-
chemicals, and the increase in their bioavailability (Ragaee,
Seetharaman, and Abdel-Aal 2014). Cereal grain processing
techniques and their impact on the grain nutrition, phyto-
chemicals and health functions have been comprehensively
discussed in a number of reviews and book chapters
(Ragaee, Seetharaman, and Abdel-Aal 2014; Luthria, Lu, and
John 2015; Rodr
ıguez et al. 2020; Oghbaei and Prakash
2016; Wang, Sun, and Tsao 2019; Ignat et al. 2020;
Tsafrakidou, Michaelidou, and Biliaderis 2020) and therefore
will not be highlighted here.
Phenolic compounds
Phenolic compounds, or polyphenols, are a large group of
chemical compounds consisting of one or more benzene
rings with hydroxyl groups, such as phenolic acids, flavo-
noids, coumarins, stilbenes, etc. (Campos-Vega and Oomah
2013). These compounds are ubiquitous in plants and there-
fore an unavoidable part of human diet (Ragaee et al. 2013;
Dykes and Rooney 2007). Phenolic compounds possess
many physiological functions including antioxidant, anti-
inflammatory, anti-thrombotic, anti-allergenic, anti-micro-
bial, anti-carcinogenic effects, etc., with the potential to
reduce the risk of a wide range of chronic diseases and pro-
mote human health (Fardet, Rock, and R
em
esy 2008;
Scalbert et al. 2005; Dai and Mumper 2010).
The antioxidant effect has been the most widely studied
health benefits and is considered as the major role of phen-
olic compounds. Many phenolic compounds have been
demonstrated to have potent antioxidant activity in cell cul-
ture, in vitro and in vivo studies (Masisi, Beta, and
Moghadasian 2016; Fernandez-Panchon et al. 2008; Wan
et al. 2015; Wolfe and Liu 2008). The mechanisms of the
antioxidant action of phenolic compounds are highly com-
plex. It has been suggested that phenolics exert the antioxi-
dant effects via the following three main actions: (1) direct
scavenging of free radicals; (2) preventing the formation of
free radicals by inhibiting oxidant enzymes or chelating
some transition metals; (3) upregulation of antioxidants and
detoxifying enzymes (Masisi, Beta, and Moghadasian 2016;
L
opez-Alarc
on and Denicola 2013). There is abundant evi-
dence that the intake of plant phenolic compounds is
inversely associated with the risk of many oxidative stress
led diseases, including cardiovascular diseases and cancers
(Fardet, Rock, and R
em
esy 2008; Scalbert et al. 2005;
CRITICAL REVIEWS IN FOOD SCIENCE AND NUTRITION 2409
Weichselbaum and Buttriss 2010). Phenolic compounds are
the major source of antioxidants in cereals, and the most
common phenolic compounds are phenolic acids and flavo-
noids, in which sorghum (87–2960 mg GAE/100g) and buck-
wheat (506–1642 mg GAE/100g) have the most abundant
phenolic compounds among the major cereals (Table 1)
(Fardet, Rock, and R
em
esy 2008; Yang 2010; Liu et al. 2019;
Goufo and Trindade 2014; Guo et al. 2011).
Phenolic acids
Phenolic acids are a major group of phenolic compounds
present in all cereals, and there are two main sub-classes of
phenolic acids: hydroxybenzoic acids and hydroxycinnamic
acids. Hydroxybenzoic acids including salicylic and p-
hydroxybenzoic acids, and hydroxycinnamic acids including
ferulic, p-coumaric, sinapic and caffeic acids, are the main
phenolic acids in cereals (Table 1, Figure 2). Among the
major cereals, sorghum (39–285 mg/100 g) and millet
(61–391 mg/100 g) have the highest concentration of phen-
olic acids (Table 1) (Xiong et al. 2019b; Dykes and Rooney
2007). Phenolic acids exist in both free and bound forms.
Most phenolic acids are found in the bound form in cereals,
which are covalently bound to cell walls and are an integral
part of the cell wall structures, requiring acid and alkaline
conditions to break the covalent bonds for extraction;
whereas free phenolic acids are found mainly in the outer
layer of pericarp and are extractable by organic solvents
(Robbins 2003; L
opez-Alarc
on and Denicola 2013). Ferulic
acid is the most abundant phenolic acid in all common cere-
als (except buckwheat) and is found mainly in the bound
form in the cell wall of the bran fraction (Fardet, Rock, and
R
em
esy 2008; Liu et al. 2019; Hall and Zhao 2011). Wheat
and corn have been reported to contain the highest concen-
tration of ferulic acid and can account for up to 90% of the
total phenolic contents of the whole grains (Lempereur,
Rouau, and Abecassis 1997; Boz 2016). However, in buck-
wheat, ferulic acid is only detected either in trace amounts
in common buckwheat, or not detected in tatary buckwheat
(Liu et al. 2019). Tartary buckwheat has about six times
more phenolic acid content than common buckwheat, and
salicylic acid has been reported to be the most abundant
phenolic acid (> 90% of the total phenolic acids) (Liu et al.
2019). The primary health effect of phenolic acids is consid-
ered to be the antioxidant activity (Heleno et al. 2015).
Flavonoids
Flavonoids constitute the largest family of phenolic com-
pounds in nature and in cereals, which are concentrated in
the bran fraction of the grains (Dykes and Rooney 2007).
The main flavonoids (subclasses) reported in cereals include
anthocyanidins, flavones, flavonols, falvan-3-ols and flava-
nones (Table 1, Figure 2). Among the major cereals, sor-
ghum has the most diverse and abundant flavonoids (Xiong
et al. 2020). Anthocyanidins (Figure 2), a group of water-
soluble pigments (orange, red to purple, blue color), has
been the most studied flavonoids in cereals. The anthocyani-
din content varies greatly among cereals (Table 1). High
2410 Y. XIONG ET AL.
Figure 3. Flow chart of the manufacturing process of cereal grain-based milk.
Summarized from the preparation of corn, rice and oat milks.
concentrations are found in cereals with pigmented pericarp,
such as orange-red to purple-blue or black colored corn,
rice, wheat, barley and sorghum (Goufo and Trindade 2014;
Xiong et al. 2020; Idehen, Tang, and Sang 2017; Rouf Shah,
Prasad, and Kumar 2016). Sorghum contains a rare type of
anthocyanidins, called 3-deoxyanthocyanidins, which lacks
an OH group at C-3 position (Figure 2). 3-
Deoxyanthocyanidins are more stable than anthocyanidins,
and have been proposed as potential multifunctional natural
colorants (Xiong et al. 2019a, 2019b). Other flavonoids in
cereals are also widely present in fruits and vegetables.
Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer and anti-muta-
genic effects, and modulation of certain cellular enzymes
have been suggested as the main health benefits of flavo-
noids (Panche, Diwan, and Chandra 2016).
Other phenolics
Condensed tannins (proanthocyanidins or procyanidins) are
a group of polymeric phenolic compounds. In cereals, they
are composed primarily of flavan-3-ol monomers and are
mainly found in some pigmented cereal grains such as
brown sorghum, red finger millets and dark-colored barley
(Table 1, Figure 2) (Dykes and Rooney 2006; Salar, Purewal,
and Sandhu 2017). In sorghum, condensed tannins have a
high molecular weight and a high degree of polymerization,
and are not commonly found in other major cereals; but are
very abundant in sorghums with pigmented testa (type III
high tannin sorghums) (Xiong et al. 2020). Condensed tan-
nins are known for their bitter and astringent taste and have
long been considered as anti-nutritional compounds due to
their ability to bind to some proteins, amino acids and min-
erals and thus reduce their bioavailability (Xiong et al.
2020). Nevertheless, they have been demonstrated to possess
potential multiple health effects. These compounds exhibit
much higher antioxidant capacity in vitro than monomeric
phenolics, with potential gastroprotective and cholesterol-
lowering effects, and have been suggested as an ideal dietary
ingredient for people with obesity and diabetes (Smeriglio
et al. 2017; Xiong et al. 2020).
Lignans are a group of phytoestrogens present in many
plants. They are found in the bran of cereal grain and are
relatively abundant in oat and rye (Table 1, Figure 2)
(Rodr
ıguez-Garc
ıa et al. 2019; Durazzo et al. 2013). The
main plant lignans include secoisolariciresinol, matairesinol,
lariciresinol, pinoresinol and syringaresinol. These lignans
can be converted into mammalian lignans (in the colon by
microflora), which have strong antioxidant and weak estro-
genic activities, and are believed to promote colon health
and reduce the risk of hormone related cancers (Thompson
1994; Adlercreutz 2007).
Alkylresorcinols are a group of phenolic lipids. They are
located in the bran fraction of cereal grain and have been
reported in some cereals like corn, wheat, barley, millet and
rye, where rye has the highest amount of alkylresorcinols
among them (Table 1, Figure 2) (Ross et al. 2003; Mattila,
Pihlava, and Hellstr€ om 2005; Fardet, Rock, and R
em
esy
2008). Alkylresorcinols have shown anti-microbial activity
and antioxidant activity in vitro, and they are considered as
lipophilic antioxidants, although less efficient than vitamin E
(Ross, Kamal-Eldin, and Åman 2004).
Avenanthramides are a group of phenolic alkaloids
unique to oat (Table 1, Figure 2). The main avenanthra-
mides reported in oat are avenanthramide A, B and C, and
these compounds have been demonstrated to have antioxi-
dant, anti-inflammatory and anti-atherogenic activities
in vitro and/or in vivo (Gani et al. 2012; Meydani 2009).
Dietary fibers
Dietary fiber is another large family of bioactive phytochem-
icals and one of the major and common health-promoting
components of cereals (Table 1). Dietary fibers are located
in both bran and endosperm fractions of cereal grain, and
the main dietary fiber components in cereals include cellu-
lose, arabinoxylan, lignin, b-glucan, resistant starch and inu-
lin (Dhingra et al. 2012). The health effects of dietary fibers
have been extensively studied and well documented. Whole
grain dietary fibers have multiple physiological effects,
including anti-glycemic, antioxidant, hormone regulation,
prebiotic, and modulation of intestinal microbiota. High
dietary fiber intake has been linked to a reduced risk of cer-
tain diseases such as gastrointestinal diseases, cardiovascular
diseases, diabetes and obesity (Charalampopoulos et al.
2002; Smith and Tucker 2011; Threapleton et al. 2013; Aune
et al. 2011). b-glucan, arabinoxylan and resistant starch are
the most widely studied dietary fibers in cereals.
b-Glucans are a group of polysaccharides composed of
glucose units (Figure 2). They are important dietary fibers,
mainly located in the cell walls of the aleurone and endo-
sperm, and are found in all major cereals (Table 1) (Ahmad
et al. 2012; Ermawar et al. 2015; Sun et al. 2019). Among
the major cereals, oat and barley contain the highest amount
of b-glucans (Table 1) where they are concentrated in the
aleurone layer and endosperm, respectively (Izydorczyk and
Biliaderis 2000; Ahmad et al. 2012). The main physiological

effects of b-glucans include lowering blood cholesterol, regu-
lating blood glucose and enhancing the immune system
(Wood 2010). b-Glucans are water-soluble and have high
viscosity which can bind cholesterol and bile acids in the
gastrointestinal tract, thus facilitating their elimination in
the body (Wood 2010; Sun et al. 2019). It has been recom-
mended by the FDA that consumption of 3 g or more b-glu-
cans, from barley and oat, per day, can help to lower blood
cholesterol levels and reduce the risk of coronary heart dis-
ease (FDA 2008).
Arabinoxylans are a type of hemicellulose consisting of a
linear xylose backbone chain with arabinose substitutions
(Figure 2). Arabinoxylans have been reported in all major
cereals, and rye has the highest arabinoxylan content (Table
1) (Izydorczyk and Biliaderis 2000; Izydorczyk, Phillips, and
Williams 2009). Arabinoxylans are mainly located in the cell
walls of both bran and endosperm fractions of grains. They
are the second most abundant biopolymers, after cellulose,
in many cereals and form a major source of dietary fiber in
the diet (Izydorczyk, Phillips, and Williams 2009; Saeed
et al. 2011). The unique feature of arabinoxylans is the pres-
ence of phenolic acids, such as ferulic acid, which are cova-
lently linked to xyloses and arabinoses. The ferulated
arabinoxylans have prebiotic, antioxidant, and anti-cancer
properties and have gained much attention in the pharma-
ceutical industry (Mendez-Encinas et al. 2018).
Resistant starch, also considered a member of the dietary
fiber group, is a type of starch that resists digestion in the
small intestine, passes into the large intestine, and is com-
monly found in cereal grains and legumes (Table 1).
Resistant starch has various benefits to colonic and meta-
bolic health, and the specific health functions have been well
summarized by Fuentes-Zaragoza et al. (2010).
Carotenoids
Carotenoids are a group of natural pigments widely present
in plants, responsible for yellow, orange and red color
(Figure 2). In cereals, carotenoids are more evenly distrib-
uted within the grain compared to other bioactive com-
pounds such as phenolic compounds, and significant
amounts of carotenoids are present in the endosperm, which
results in the yellow color of the endosperm (Trono 2019).
The main carotenoids found in cereals are lutein, zeaxan-
thin, a-carotene, b-carotene and b-cryptoxanthin, and the
composition and concentration of these carotenoids in cere-
als vary considerably (Table 1). In general, cereals have a
lower carotenoid content compared to fruits and vegetables,
but some cereals with dark yellow or golden color pig-
mented endosperm, such as high carotenoid corn, golden
rice, foxtail millet, contain high levels of carotenoids (Ndolo
and Beta 2013; Shen et al. 2015; Moreau et al. 2016; Trono
2019). Among the major cereals, corn is the best source of
carotenoids and contains considerable amounts of carote-
noids ranging from 0.9 to 15.6 mg/100 g of the whole grain.
Lutein, zeaxanthin and b-carotene are the most abundant
carotenoids in corn (Trono 2019). Carotenoids have received
much attention due to their pro-vitamin and lipid-soluble
CRITICAL REVIEWS IN FOOD SCIENCE AND NUTRITION 2411
antioxidant properties, and have been reported to be respon-
sible for several physiological functions, including support-
ing eye, skin and cardiovascular health and enhancing the
immune system (Rao and Rao 2007).
Tocols
Tocols (vitamin E analogs), including tocopherols and toco-
trienols, are naturally occurring lipid-soluble antioxidants in
fruits, vegetables and cereal grains. In cereals, tocols are pre-
sent in all major cereals and are mostly located in the germ
fraction of the grain (Zielinski, Ciska, and Kozlowska 2013).
Tocols are generally found at moderate levels in cereals, but
substantial amounts have been reported in some corn,
wheat, barley, oat and rye (Table 1) (Zielinski, Ciska, and
Kozlowska 2013; Ehrenbergerova et al. 2006; Asharani,
Jayadeep, and Malleshi 2010; Chung et al. 2013). The com-
position and concentration of tocols vary considerably
among cereals. There are six main tocols in cereals, which
are a-, b- and c-tocopherol and a-, b- and c-tocotrienol
(Figure 2). Among these, a-tocopherol is the most common
one in all major cereals; and high levels of a-tocopherol (in
corn), c-tocopherol (in corn and buckwheat), and a-tocotrie-
nol (in barley and oat) have been reported (Zielinski, Ciska,
and Kozlowska 2013; Ehrenbergerova et al. 2006; Tiwari and
Cummins 2009; Asharani, Jayadeep, and Malleshi 2010;
Chung et al. 2013). The health effect of tocols has been a
subject of extensive research. The most important health
functions of tocols are the antioxidant activity and the main-
tenance of membrane integrity, and it has been shown to
protect against some degenerative diseases, including cardio-
vascular diseases and cancers (Zielinski, Ciska, and
Kozlowska 2013; Fardet, Rock, and R
em
esy 2008).
Phytosterols
Phytosterols are plant sterols and stanols, having a structure
similar to cholesterol (Figure 2). Phytosterols are structural
components of plant cell membranes, located primarily in
the bran fraction of cereal grains and found in all major
cereals (Table 1) (Piironen, Toivo, and Lampi 2002; Awika
and Rooney 2004; Bhandari and Lee 2013; Gupta, Sharma,
and Singh 2018). Phytosterols in cereals exist in free form,
esterified with fatty acids or phenolic acids or conjugated
with glycosides, and cereal grains are considered to be the
major dietary source of phytosterols (Piironen, Toivo, and
Lampi 2002). The main phytosterols in cereals are sitosterol,
campesterol, stigmasterol, sitostanol and campestanol; sitos-
terol is the predominant phytosterol in all major cereals
(Table 1, Figure 2). Phytosterols are one of the bioactive
compounds currently under active research, and the choles-
terol lowering effect is the main health function that has
been well documented (Genser et al. 2012).
c-Oryzanol
c-Oryzanol, originally presumed to be a single chemical
compound and unique to rice, but is now known to be a
2412 Y. XIONG ET AL.
Figure 4. Flow chart of the production of cereal grain tea. Summarized from
the preparation of corn, rice, barley, sorghum and buckwheat teas.
mixture of triterpene and ferulated phytosterol and has also
been detected in other cereals such as corn, wheat, barley
and rye, but at much lower levels compared to rice (Figure
2, Table 1) (Goufo and Trindade 2014; Sing et al. 2015).
c-Oryzanol is mainly located in the bran of the whole grain.
In rice, the c-oryzanol content is about 20-122 mg/100 g in
the whole grain and 185-421 mg/100 g in the bran fraction
(Goufo and Trindade 2014; Sing et al. 2015; Gani et al.
2012). It is a major functional component in rice bran oil.
c-Oryzanol has been demonstrated to have significant anti-
oxidant activity both in vitro and in vivo (Suh et al. 2005;
Juliano et al. 2005), as well as potential anti-inflammatory,
anti-cancer and anti-diabetic health functions (Patel and
Naik 2004; Minatel et al. 2016)
Phytic acid
Phytic acid (inositol hexakisphosphate), or phytate when in
salt form, is the principal storage compound for phosphorus
in many plants (Figure 2). In cereal grains, phytic acid is
mainly located in the bran fraction, in particular the aleur-
one layer and germ of the grain. Phytic acid contains more
than 70% of total phosphorus in the whole grain and
accounts for 1-7% of the whole grain dry weight (Table 1)
(Fardet, Rock, and R
em
esy 2008; Goufo and Trindade 2014;
Steadman et al. 2001). Phytic acid has long been considered
as an anti-nutritional compound due to its strong ability to
chelate minerals such as iron, calcium, magnesium and zinc,
thus affecting their intestinal bioavailability (Kumar et al.
2010). Despite the anti-nutritional effect, phytic acid has
also been reported to have multiple positive physiological
functions, including antioxidant activity (suppressing iron
catalyzed oxidation), interruption of cellular signal transduc-
tion, and promotion of DNA repair, etc. (Kumar et al.
2010). Consumption of phytic acid can promote colon
health, and provide protection against cardiovascular
diseases, diabetes and a number of oxidation mediated can-
cers (Kumar et al. 2010).
Cereal grain-based milk alternatives
Cow’s milk has traditionally been an important component
of the daily diet for many people around the world.
However, due to lactose intolerance, milk allergies, ethical
and environmental issues, and changes in lifestyle toward a
healthier and more plant-based diet, there is a rapidly
growing demand for plant-based milk alternatives (Tangyu
et al. 2019). Over the last two decades, a variety of plant
sources including cereals, legumes, nuts and seeds have
been exploited for cow’s milk alternatives, but much atten-
tion has been paid to soya (legume) and almond (nut)
milk (Sethi, Tyagi, and Anurag 2016; Nazir et al. 2019).
Cereals are gaining increasing importance, because they are
a rich source of bioactive phytochemicals and health prop-
erties as detailed above, and also have the potential to be
developed as functional milk alternatives. Cereal/plant-
based milk is typically manufactured by breaking down
plant materials, followed by water extraction, enzymatic
hydrolysis (saccharification) and homogenization (Sethi,
Tyagi, and Anurag 2016). The general manufacturing pro-
cess of cereal grain-based milk is summarized and illus-
trated in Figure 3. There are two types of cereal grain-
based milk (Figure 1): (i) milk-like cereal-based juice,
which preserves the color and texture of the original cereal,
such as corn milk; (ii) resembles cow’s milk in terms of
color and texture, e.g. rice milk and oat milk, generally
with a particle size distribution of approximately 5-20 lm
(Sethi, Tyagi, and Anurag 2016).
Current cereal grain-based milks
Corn milk
Corn milk, also referred to as corn juice, is a type of cereal
milk that has only recently appeared on the market in
China. Corn milk is rich in starch, protein, dietary fiber and
other bioactive ingredients and is widely believed to help in
preventing cardiovascular diseases, obesity and diabetes due
to its rich bioactive components (Yang and Zhang 2011).
Corn milk uses corn whole grain, often sweet corn, as the
main raw material and is typically manufactured by pre-
cooking, milling, blending, enzymatic hydrolysis (saccharifi-
cation), homogenization, and then pasteurization (Yang
et al. 2012; Yang and Zhang 2011). Unlike other cereal milk
such as rice and oat milk, corn milk has a yellow color with
a thick consistency. It is commonly considered to be a
healthier functional beverage than cow’s milk and could be
an alternative to cow’s milk. Although corn milk is now a
fast-growing beverage on the market, current research on
corn milk is still limited and focuses mainly on the formula-
tion and processing optimization of corn milk production
(Yang et al. 2012; Yang and Zhang 2011; Du, Li, and
Jin 2009).

Rice milk
Rice milk, or rice soup, is a traditional beverage from East
Asian countries. Traditionally, rice milk refers to the rice
water remaining as a co-product, after cooking/boiling rice,
or as the layer of liquid floating on top of rice porridge,
which is commonly consumed during meals to quench thirst
and stimulate the appetite. Today, a number of new rice
milk products have been developed and commercialized
worldwide (Mitchell, Mitchell, and Nissenbaum 1988;
Ravagnani and Sambataro 2008; Mitchell and Mitchell 2010;
Takubo 1997). Commercial rice milk is often made from
whole grain brown rice, or rice sirup, and is typically manu-
factured by grinding/milling, mixing with water, followed by
starch hydrolysis, filtration and fortification, and then hom-
ogenization (Ravagnani and Sambataro 2008; Mitchell and
Mitchell 2010).
Commercial rice milk is considered to be the most hypo-
allergenic of all plant-based milks, and has been suggested
as the best alternative to cow’s milk for people with multiple
allergies such as lactose intolerance, soya or nut allergies
(Bridges 2018). In addition to the bioactive compounds
listed in Table 1, rice and its products are also rich sources
of B vitamins. A recent study found that the thiamin con-
tent of rice milk (11.95 mg/mL) was far higher than that of
cow’s milk (0.39-0.48 mg/mL) and other dairy products
(chocolate milk, yogurt, sour milk, sour cream, 0.38-0.54 mg/
mL) (Lali
c et al. 2014). Moreover, rice milk is also rich in
selenium and magnesium, which are considered to assist in
enhancing the immune system and in preventing bacterial
and viral infections (Babu et al. 2009; Abou-Dobara, Ismail,
and Refaat 2016).
Oat milk
Oat milk is one of the most popular cereal milks. It was
developed in the 1990s by Swedish scientists seeking alterna-
tives for people with lactose intolerance and nut allergies
€
(Onning et al. 1998). Oat milk has become the most success-
ful and commercialized cereal milk and is now available
under many brands around the world, including Oatly
(Sweden), Pureharvest (Australia), Vitasoy (China), Pacific
(US) and Alpro (UK), etc. Oat milk is typically manufac-
tured by milling, mixing with water, enzymatic hydrolysis,
filtration and then fortification; homogenization and thermal
treatments are also used to improve product stability and
shelf life (Deswal, Deora, and Mishra 2014a, 2014b).
Oat is a good source of high-quality protein, fat and sol-
uble fiber, and the interest in oat mainly arises by its bio-
active ingredients, in particular b-glucans. Oat has a high
content of b-glucans, which accounts for about 4.3–9.4% of
the dry weight of oat grains, and is well known for the
blood cholesterol lowering effect (Ahmad et al. 2012). Oat
milk has been reported to contain about 4.5–5.1 g/L of
€
b-glucans (Onning €
et al. 1998; Onning et al. 1999).
To examine the cholesterol lowering effect of oat milk,
€
Onning et al. (1998) compared the effect of oat milk, soy
milk or cow’s milk consumption, at 0.75–1.0 L/day for
4 weeks, on blood lipids, in healthy human subjects. Oat
milk resulted in a significant decrease in blood total
CRITICAL REVIEWS IN FOOD SCIENCE AND NUTRITION 2413
cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol,
and soya milk resulted in a decrease in LDL cholesterol,
which was less than that seen with oat milk, whereas cow’s
milk only led to an increase in the high-density lipoprotein
€
(HDL) cholesterol level (Onning et al. 1998). Oat milk was
also given higher overall sensory scores, by untrained con-
sumers, than soya milk and cow’s milk. Another study com-
pared the effect of oat milk (deprived of insoluble fiber) and
rice milk composition, 0.75 L/day for 5 weeks, on blood lip-
ids in men with moderate hypercholesterolemia (Onning €
et al. 1999). Compared to rice milk, the intake of oat milk
significantly reduced total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol
levels; nevertheless, both milks were well appreciated by
untrained consumers and had the same overall sen-
sory score.
Cereal milk nutrition and processing techniques
Cereal milk is lactose-free, hypoallergenic, and contains bio-
active compounds with potential health-promoting proper-
ties, which is a promising alternative to cow’s milk.
However, it is generally not nutritionally balanced compared
to cow’s milk and faces a number of technological challenges
related to processing and product stability.
Compared to cow’s milk, cereal milk is rich in carbohy-
drates and dietary fiber but generally lacks calcium, iron,
vitamin A and certain amino acids, and contains less protein
content, and therefore cereal milk cannot completely replace
cow’s milk for children under 5 years of age (Sethi, Tyagi,
and Anurag 2016). The aforementioned nutrients must be
enhanced to ensure that the final product is a nutritional
replacement for cow’s milk. Besides, processing may result
in a loss of nutrients, especially minerals and vitamins, so
enrichment/fortification should also be performed to restore
and balance these nutrients lost during processing or absent
from the raw materials.
Cereal milk contains high levels of starch, and this can
lead to problems in forming a stable emulsion during ther-
mal treatment. During heat processing, the starch may gelat-
inize, resulting in milk with higher viscosity and gel-like
consistency and lower sensory quality and acceptability
(Deswal, Deora, and Mishra 2014b). In order to maintain
the milk fluidity and consistency, enzymatic hydrolysis of
starch by amylases and glucosidases is often employed to
convert the starch to maltodextrins that gelatinize at higher
temperatures, thereby preventing the gelation during the
thermal processing (Sethi, Tyagi, and Anurag 2016; Tangyu
et al. 2019). A study investigated the effect of enzymatic
starch hydrolysis on oat milk preparation and found that
the starch hydrolysis had a major impact on the yield, total
solids and rheological properties of oat milk; and the opti-
mal hydrolysis condition was 27% w/w oat slurry concentra-
tion, 2.1% w/w enzyme (a-amylase) concentration with
49 min liquefaction time (Deswal, Deora, and
Mishra 2014b).
Similar to other plant-based milk, cereal milk is a col-
loidal system composed of large particles, including starch
granules, proteins and fibers. If the particles are too big, this
Table 2. Summary of the major cereal grain-based nonalcoholic beverages in the world. 2414

Cereals Name of beverages Regions Description of beverages Health benefits References

Milk type Corn Corn milk China - Lactose-free n/a (Yang et al. 2012; Du, Li,
- Hypoallergenic and Jin 2009; Yang
- Yellow color and Zhang 2011)
Rice Rice milk East Asian countries - Lactose-free n/a (Koyama and Kitamura
- Hypoallergenic (best) 2014; Lali
c et al. 2014;
- Milk-like Ravagnani and
Sambataro 2008)
Y. XIONG ET AL.

Oat Oat milk Western countries - Lactose-free I ! Blood (Deswal, Deora, and
- Hypoallergenic cholesterol lowering €
Mishra 2014b; Onning
- Milk-like €
et al. 1998; Onning
et al. 1999)

Tea type Corn Corn tea, yumi-chaC, China, Korea - Caffeine-free T ! Thirst quenching, (Barahona 2001; Feng
oksusu-chaK - Clear, yellow color diuresis, detoxification et al. 2009; Youn and
- Light, mild, sweet taste Chung 2012)
Rice Brown rice tea, caomi-chaC, China, Korea - Caffeine-free T !Thirst quenching, (Lee et al. 2009; Wu, Zhai,
hyeonmi-chaK - Clear, yellow to appetite stimulating, et al. 2013; Han et al.
brown color blood 2015; Zhao et al. 2016)
pressure lowering
Barley Barley tea damai-chaC, bori- China, Korea, Japan - Caffeine-free T !Thirst quenching, (Omwamba et al. 2013;
chaK, mugi-chaJ - Clear, yellow to brown appetite stimulating, Ashigai et al. 2018;
color aiding digestion, Makpoul 2016; Tatsu
- Light, slight bitter and weight loss et al. 2020; Papetti
sweet taste I ! Antioxidant et al. 2007; Stauder
- Roasted, nutty aroma (in vitro, in vivo), anti- et al. 2010; Suganuma,
cariogenic, improve Inakuma, and
blood flow circulation, Kikuchi 2002)
blood
cholesterol lowering
Sorghum Sorghum tea, gaoliang-chaC China - Caffeine-free I ! Antioxidant (in vitro), (Xiong et al. 2019; Sun
- Clear, light yellow color a-glucosidase and et al. 2020; Xiong
- Roasted, floral, a-amylase inhibition et al. 2020)
nutty aroma
Buckwheat Buckwheat tea, kuqiao-chaC, China, Korea, Japan - Caffeine-free I ! Antioxidant (in vitro, (Jeong et al. 2011;
memil-chaK, soba-chaJ - Clear, light yellow color cellular model), anti- Zielinska, Szawara-
- Rich, slight sweet taste glycation, Nowak, and Zielinski
- Roasted, rich, a-glucosidase 2013; Qin et al. 2014;
nutty aroma inhibition, Guo et al. 2017; Peng
hypoglycemic et al. 2015)

Fermented nonalcoholic Corn MahewuE South Africa, Zimbabwe - Sweet-sour, thin, gritty n/a (Gadaga et al. 1999;
- Light-grey or Katongole 2008)
whitish color
PozolE Mexico - Sweet-sour, milky T ! Reduce fevers, (Marshall and Mejia 2011;
- Brownish color control diarrhea and Guyot et al. 2004)
intestinal disorders
Rice AmazakeE Japan - Sweet, viscous, thick I ! Anti-obesity, anti- (Oura et al. 2007; Nagao
- Light-grey or hypertension, anti- and Sata 2013)
whitish color amnesia, alleviate the
symptoms of
liver cirrhosis
Sorghum BusheraE Uganda - Sweet or sour n/a
- Opaque, brownish color
 (Muyanja, Kikafunda, et al.
2003; Muyanja,
Narvhus, et al. 2003)
Gow
e (main)E Benin - Sweet-sour, light, smooth n/a (Michodjehoun-Mestres
- Brownish, reddish color et al. 2005; Seïdou
et al. 2011)
Millet Kunun-zaki (main)E Nigeria - Sweet-sour, milky, creamy T ! Improve the (Efiuvwevwere and Akona
and smooth lactation of 1995; Oranusi, Umoh,
- Light-brown or nursing mothers and Kwaga 2003;
whitish color Agarry, Nkama, and
Akoma 2010)
Rye KvassE Eastern and Central Europe - Sweet-sour taste, a mixed T ! Eliminate digestive (Dlusskaya et al. 2008;
rye bread and yeast flavor disorders like flatulence Lidums, Karklina, and
- Golden brown color and hyperacidity Kirse 2016; Gambu
s
I! et al. 2015).
Antioxidant (in vitro)
C
¼ Chinese name;
K
¼ Korean name;
J
¼ Japanese name;
E
¼ Common English name;
T ¼ Traditional health care use (not investigated or verified);
I ¼ Health effects that have been investigated and showed significant effects.
n/a ¼ No relevant literature available, but their health benefits are closely related to their bioactive phytochemicals listed in Table 1.
CRITICAL REVIEWS IN FOOD SCIENCE AND NUTRITION
2415
2416 Y. XIONG ET AL.
can lead to poor sensory experience, such as sandy, rough
or chalky mouthfeel. Also, during storage, the larger par-
ticles in the milk may sink due to gravity and result in pre-
cipitation, sedimentation or delamination, which can
compromise the product quality (Sethi, Tyagi, and Anurag
2016). Different manufacturing strategies have been devel-
oped to solve this problem, of which homogenization is the
most commonly used (Yang and Zhang 2011; Lindahl et al.
1997; Deswal, Deora, and Mishra 2014a; Kivel€a et al. 2010).
Homogenization can reduce the particle size and ensure the
particles are evenly distributed, thereby reducing sedimenta-
tion and improving the stability of the beverage. Ultra high
pressure homogenization (UHPH), an emerging and more
advanced homogenization technology that employs up to
400 MPa pressure, is another promising technology that can
be utilized for plant-based milk. UHPH can produce smaller
and more uniform sized particles and more effectively
improve the stability and quality of plant-based milk (Cruz
et al. 2007; Briviba et al. 2016). It can also achieve microbial
reduction and enzyme inactivation, with an effect similar to
that of pasteurization (Poliseli-Scopel et al. 2012; Cruz et al.
2007). For example, soya milk treated with UHPH
(300 MPa, 75  C) showed high physical stability (no sedi-
mentation or delamination was observed during the first
week), lower lipid oxidation (compared to pasteurization
and ultra high heat treatment), and achieved commercial
sterility (Poliseli-Scopel et al. 2012). However, no research
has been conducted on UHPH treated cereal milk, which
warrants further investigation.
Adding stabilizers or emulsifiers is another strategy to
improve the cereal milk stability. A recent study investigated
the effect of incorporating stabilizer, xanthan gum, on the
physical stability of rice milk, and found that rice milk was
stabilized by incorporating 0.1% xanthan gum, while xan-
than gum-free milk showed precipitation in one day; and
milk containing 0.3% xanthan gum had the highest sensory
preference rating (Koyama and Kitamura 2014).
Finally, the growing demand for plant-based milk by con-
sumers has created a new market for cereal applications.
The trend, therefore, presents a promising opportunity to
exploit cereals for cow’s milk alternatives. Although cereal
grain-based milk has many health advantages over trad-
itional cow’s milk, the aforementioned nutritional and
technological issues need to be addressed before it can
become a competent substitute for cow’s milk. With people
increasingly preferring plant-based foods, cereal milk is a
promising alternative to cow’s milk.
Roasted cereal grain teas
Cereal grain tea is a caffeine-free beverage that has tradition-
ally been homemade and consumed in many households in
East Asia, particularly China, Japan and Korea. Cereal grain
tea is a roasted grain-based infusion, and roasting is the
most important processing step for the tea production,
which yields the unique roasted grain aroma. The tea is typ-
ically prepared by boiling the roasted whole grains or pow-
der or by brewing in hot water and consumed either hot or
cold. A general production process of roasted cereal grain
tea is illustrated in Figure 4.
Apart from quenching thirst, cereal grain tea is believed
to have many health-promoting benefits due to its rich bio-
active compounds. The health effects of roasted cereal grain
tea are primarily due to the presence of these compounds in
the tea soup, in particular those that are water-soluble, with
more health benefits available if the grain residues are
retained in the soup and consumed together. Current known
cereal grain teas include corn tea, rice tea, barley tea, sor-
ghum tea and buckwheat tea (Table 2, Figure 1).
Cereal grain tea and their potential health properties
Corn tea
Corn tea is a traditional Korean tea, made from whole corn
grain. Corn tea is prepared simply by drying and roasting to
obtain roasted grain, and the grain is then infused with boil-
ing water to make yellow colored tea. It is a popular tea in
Korea and consumed in most households during the winter
and believed to have thirst quenching, diuretic and detoxifi-
cation effects (Feng et al. 2009), although these effects need
more scientific evidence support.
Today, corn tea has been commercialized in Korea and
some regions of China, and one corn tea product using
white corn has been patented (Barahona 2001). However,
there is very little scientific research on corn tea. One study
investigated the roasting conditions of corn tea, and found
that the optimal roasting condition for tea quality was
207  C for 24 min (Youn and Chung 2012). Also, a Chinese
study investigated the processing conditions of corn tea, and
found the best roasting condition, for the highest sensory
score, was at 200  C for 20 min (Feng et al. 2009).
Rice tea
Rice tea has been a traditional beverage in some regions of
China for over 2500 years. Traditionally, rice tea is prepared
by washing, soaking, and then roasting rice grains, often de-
branned grain, under low temperature until the rice
becomes golden brown, and then boiling in water until the
grains appear popped. Typically, brown rice is used, but
white rice and black rice are also used. It is traditionally
believed that rice tea has thirst quenching, appetite stimulat-
ing and blood pressure lowering effects (Zhao et al. 2016),
although these effects require further investigation.
Rice tea is becoming increasingly popular in Korea and
Japan, and recent research has focused on the optimization
of processing conditions and on the investigation of novel
rice tea. Several Korean studies have attempted to develop
rice tea with enhanced taste, nutrition and functionality,
such as germinated rough rice tea with high phenolic con-
tent and antioxidant activity (Lee et al. 2009), and black rice
tea (pop-rice) made from black waxy rice with giant
embryo, with enhanced phenolic content, amino acids and
antioxidant activity (Han et al. 2015).

Barley tea
Barley tea, also known as “oriental coffee”, is particularly
popular in China, Korea and Japan. It is traditionally pre-
pared from roasted whole barley grain where the roasted
grains are infused in hot water, can be served hot or cold,
and is now widely available in tea bags, as ground barley,
and in bottles. Barley tea has a light, slightly bitter and sweet
taste with a strong toasted and nutty aroma and is a popular
thirst-quencher in the summer; it is traditionally believed
that barley has appetite stimulating, aiding digestion and
weight loss health benefits (Oh et al. 2014; Tatsu
et al. 2020).
Today, barley tea products have been demonstrated to
have various biological activities. Studies have shown that
aqueous and/or alcoholic phenolic extracts from roasted bar-
ley tea grain exhibited high antioxidant properties in vitro,
as evidenced by scavenging radicals (DPPH, OH, O2) and
chelation of transition metal ions (Fe3þ) (Omwamba and
Hu 2009; Etoh et al. 2004; Omwamba et al. 2013). Barley tea
has also been shown to have high antioxidant activity
in vivo in animal models. Omwamba et al. (2013) found
that aged mice gavagely administered barley tea extract had
significantly higher total antioxidant capacity in the blood
and elevated lipid peroxidation inhibition in liver homogen-
ate, which was comparable to Trolox (a synthetic antioxi-
dant). The phenolic extract was also shown to increase the
activity of antioxidant enzymes superoxide dismutase (SOD)
and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) and to decrease the
levels of malondialdehyde (MDA) and manoamine oxidase
(MAO) in both mice liver and brain, compared to untreated
mice (Omwamba et al. 2013). Phenolic compounds are the
main antioxidant components in barley tea, and some phen-
olic compounds: 3,4-dihydroxybenzaldehyde, p-coumaric
acid, quercetin, and isoamericanol A, extracted from barley
tea have shown higher antioxidant activity in vitro than syn-
thetic antioxidant butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) (Etoh
et al. 2004).
In addition, studies have shown that barley tea can inter-
fere with the adsorption of a variety of strains of
Streptococci mutans (S. mutans) to hydroxyapatite, which
simulates the surface of the tooth (Papetti et al. 2007;
Stauder et al. 2010). Cariogenic bacteria such as S. mutans
can adhere to the tooth surface and form biofilm or plaque
that can cause caries (Stauder et al. 2010). It was found that
after component fractionation by dialysis and gel filtration
chromatography, the high molecular mass (> 1000 kDa)
fraction from barley tea displayed strong anti-adhesive prop-
erties against S. mutans (Papetti et al. 2007; Stauder et al.
2010). These findings suggest that the consumption of barley
tea may prevent the colonization of cariogenic bacteria on
tooth surfaces and promote oral health.
Blood circulation plays an important role in the body in
delivering oxygen, nutrients and metabolites, removing
waste products, and maintaining homeostasis (Ashigai et al.
2018). Barley tea has been demonstrated to have an amelio-
ratory effect on the blood flow. It has been reported that
ingestion of 250 mL barley tea significantly decreased the
blood flow rate in human subjects one hour after ingestion
CRITICAL REVIEWS IN FOOD SCIENCE AND NUTRITION 2417
(Suganuma, Inakuma, and Kikuchi 2002). Moreover, Ashigai
et al. (2018) have found that barley tea can positively affect
the blood circulation in rat tail and human skin. They pro-
posed the underlying mechanism that, barley tea could regu-
late blood flow through cutaneous arterial sympathetic nerve
activity (involved in the control of blood flow in the skin)
and vasodilation via NO production in the endothelium,
thereby improving blood circulation. It has been suggested
that alkylpyrazines (Suganuma, Inakuma, and Kikuchi 2002)
and 2,5-diketopiperazines (Ashigai et al. 2018) generated
during the roasting processing may be responsible for the
effects in the barley tea.
Barley tea also shows a lowering effect on blood choles-
terol. A recent study has found that the intake of barley tea
(made from blended raw and roasted barley whole grains)
in rats with a hypercholesterolemia diet significantly reduced
the blood total cholesterol, triglyceride and LDL cholesterol
levels (Makpoul 2016). Because of its attractive roasted grain
flavor and potential health benefits, barley tea has now been
the most successful and well-commercialized roasted cereal
grain tea (Tsuru et al. 2011; Terazawa, Maki, and
Yokoo 2011).
Sorghum tea
Sorghum tea has recently emerged on the market in China,
owing to its potential therapeutic benefits. Sorghum has
received considerable interest due to the high levels of phen-
olic compounds it contains, which are more diverse and
abundant than other cereals (Xiong et al. 2019b). A unique
feature of sorghum is the presence of 3-deoxyanthocyanidins
and condensed tannins (Table 1). In particular, 3-deoxyan-
thocyanidins, water-soluble antioxidants, besides their health
benefits, have promising thermal stability and are resistant
to severe thermal processing, hence why sorghum is one of
the promising raw materials for the preparation of func-
tional foods such as tea beverages (Xiong et al.
2019b, 2019a).
The bioactive properties of a sorghum whole grain tea
produced by the traditional processing techniques of soak-
ing, steaming and then roasting were investigated by Wu,
Huang, et al. (2013). The tea had significant antioxidant
activity and a-glucosidase and a-amylase inhibitory activity
in vitro, which were positively correlated with the phenolic
contents (total phenolic, flavonoids and tannin contents)
(Wu, Huang, et al. 2013). Subsequently, two studies applied
similar processing techniques, to compare the sorghum tea
made from different colored grain genotypes, including
white (Xiong et al. 2019), red and black (Xiong et al. 2020)
sorghum whole grains. Tea made from black sorghum had
up to seven times higher phenolic contents and antioxidant
activity in vitro than tea made from white and red sorghum
teas (Xiong et al. 2019; Xiong et al. 2020). Sun et al. (2020)
made a tea using a red sorghum whole grain, which had
been fermented with yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) or lac-
tic acid bacteria (LAB, Lactobacillus plantarum), before the
steaming and roasting processing steps. They found that fer-
mentation had a small effect on the phenolic content and
antioxidant activity but had a large influence on the tea
2418 Y. XIONG ET AL.
aroma (Sun et al. 2020). Current research on sorghum grain
tea is focused mainly on the tea processing techniques.
Buckwheat tea
Buckwheat tea is another popular cereal tea that has recently
emerged in China, Korea and Japan due to its unique
roasted aroma in addition to claims of beneficial health
effects. Similar to other cereal grain teas, buckwheat tea is
commonly made from roasted whole grain followed by hot
water infusion or boiling, and other non-grain materials
such as buckwheat stems and leaves are often used. Both
common buckwheat and tartary buckwheat varieties are
used to make the buckwheat tea, but tartary buckwheat is
the most popular because of its superior phenolic content
(Liu et al. 2019; Qin et al. 2013). There are now hundreds of
buckwheat tea products commercially available on the mar-
ket, made from a variety of buckwheat materials, including
the whole grain, de-branned grain, germinated grain, bran
and whole plant (steams, leaves and whole grain), and proc-
essed by various methods involving soaking, steaming, dry-
ing, roasting and extrusion (Peng et al. 2015; Guo et al.
2017; Xu et al. 2019).
Buckwheat tea has been reported to have a number of
health benefits. Most importantly, it has a strong antioxidant
activity. In vitro studies have shown that a hot water extract
from a commercial buckwheat tea exhibited strong inhibi-
tory activity against lipid peroxidation (malondialdehyde
assay) comparable to catechin, significant ABTS radical scav-
enging activity which was weaker than ascorbic acid, and in
contrast, very low ferric reducing antioxidant power (Jeong
et al. 2011). The extract also had a significant protective
effect against H2O2 induced oxidation on PC-12 cells (pheo-
chromocytoma from rat adrenal medulla) (Jeong et al.
2011). Buckwheat tea contains high levels of flavonoids con-
tent, in particular rutin and quercetin, which have been sug-
gested to be the major antioxidative constituents in
buckwheat tea (Peng et al. 2015; Guo et al. 2017; Jeong et al.
2011). The flavonoids composition of buckwheat tea varies
greatly depending on the part of the buckwheat used as the
raw material. Buckwheat tea made from the whole plant or
bran generally contains more flavonoids with a dominance
of quercetin, while the tea made from the whole grain, or
germinated grain, has relatively low flavonoid levels but has
much higher concentrations of rutin (Guo et al. 2017; Peng
et al. 2015). Although rutin has lower bioavailability than
quercetin, both are potent antioxidants (Manach et al. 1997).
Another beneficial effect of the flavonoids from buck-
wheat is their anti-glycation property. The flavonoids, rutin
and quercetin, are well-known inhibitors for advanced glyca-
tion endproducts (AGEs); AGEs are harmful substances
related to the development of many diseases, such as cardio-
vascular diseases, diabetes and cancers (Wu and Yen 2005).
Buckwheat tea made from buckwheat hull is rich in flavo-
noids rutin, vitexin and orientin, and the tea has been
shown to exhibit a significant inhibitory effect on the forma-
tion of AGEs in in vitro, but this effect is relatively low
compared to green tea (Zielinska, Szawara-Nowak, and
Zielinski 2013). Although the green tea showed a higher
total phenolic content, the buckwheat hull tea contained fla-
vonoids that are complementary to the green tea (Zielinska,
Szawara-Nowak, and Zielinski 2013), suggesting they may be
blended to make a fortified tea.
Attempts have already been made to fortify buckwheat
grain tea using herbal tea materials such as zijuan, mingri
and kudingcha leaves, to enhance the health benefits (Xu
et al. 2019). The fortified buckwheat tea contained much
higher levels of catechin and total flavonoids than the con-
trol (buckwheat tea only); it had a strong hypoglycemic
effect in alloxan-induced mice and a hypolipidemic effect in
mice on a high-fat diet through lowering blood total choles-
terol and triglyceride and increasing HDL cholesterol level
(Qin et al. 2014). Buckwheat tea blended with chrysanthe-
mums, roses or jasmine, has shown much higher total phen-
olic and flavonoids contents and antioxidant activity
in vitro, with more diverse aroma (volatile compounds) than
the control (buckwheat tea only) (Xu et al. 2019).
In addition, buckwheat tea has been reported to have
digestive enzyme inhibitory activity, both aqueous extract
(tea soup) and alcoholic extracts of both whole grain and
whole plant buckwheat tea have been demonstrated signifi-
cant a-glucosidase inhibitory activity in vitro (Qin et al.
2013; Guo et al. 2017). Interestingly, the grain aqueous
extracts had much lower inhibitory activity than the alco-
holic extracts, and the whole plant aqueous extract showed
lower inhibitory activity than the whole grain aqueous
extract. The inhibition efficiency is directly correlated with
the phenolic concentration and composition of the tea (Qin
et al. 2013; Guo et al. 2017).
It should be noted that quercetin and rutin may also
cause drug-drug interactions by influencing the activity of
drug metabolizing enzymes (Zou et al. 2016). It has been
reported that long-term consumption of buckwheat tea
could affect and accelerate the metabolism of eplerenone (an
anti-hypertensive drug) in rats, due to the high levels of
quercetin and rutin in the tea, hence the dosage of some
drugs such as eplerenone should be adjusted when consum-
ing buckwheat products such as tea during the drug treat-
ment to avoid potential drug-drug interactions (Zou
et al. 2016).
Aroma profile of roasted cereal grain teas
The aroma, which arises from volatile compounds, is an
important attractive feature of roasted cereal grain tea and a
key indicator of the tea quality. Various types of volatile
compounds have been reported in cereal grain teas. Table 3
summarizes the major groups of volatile compounds/profiles
(identified by solid phase microextraction and chromatog-
raphy-mass spectrometry method) in roasted rice, barley,
sorghum and buckwheat tea.
Rice tea: The volatile profile of whole grain black rice tea
processed by soaking, steaming and roasting (Wu, Zhai,
et al. 2013) and white rice tea made by soaking and roasting
(Zhao et al. 2016) has been investigated (Table 3). The black
rice tea had a total of 49 volatile compounds, with alkanes,
aldehydes, alkenes and pyrazines being the most abundant,
Table 3. Summary of volatile compounds (aroma) profile of roasted cereal grain tea.
Number and relative abundance (%) of major groups of volatile compounds
Types of tea Raw materials Processing Alkane Alkene Alcohol Aldehyde Carboxylic acid Ester Ketone Pyrazine Pyrrole Furan Others Total References
Rice tea Black rice Soaking, 14 (31%) 10 (17%) 3 (5%) 7 (19%) 1 (1%) 2 (2%) 3 (2%) 6 (12%) 0 2 (4%) 1 (1%) 49 (Wu, Zhai, et al. 2013)
whole grain steaming,
roasting
White rice Soaking, roasting 11 (16%) 2 (7%) 3 (8%) 9 (41%) 0 2 (6%) 3 (5%) 1 (1%) 0 1 (10%) 5 (7%) 37 (Zhao et al. 2016)
whole grain
Barley tea Whole grain Roasting (M) 0 0 7 (13%) 3 (<1%) 0 2 (4%) 12 (9%) 21 (24%) 6 (14%) 14 (35%) 6 (1%) 71 (Joung et al. 2018)
Whole grain Steaming, drying, 0 0 7 (9%) 3 (<1%) 0 2 (3%) 12 (14%) 21 (27%) 6 (16%) 13 (31%) 6 (1%) 70
roasting (M)
Whole grain (A) Roasting 0 0 8 (21%) 7 (2%) 1 (67%) 0 7 (7%) 4 (3%) 0 0 5 (<1%) 32 (Tatsu et al. 2020)
De-branned Roasting 0 0 8 (11%) 7 (3%) 1 (84%) 0 7 (2%) 4 (1%) 0 0 5 (<1%) 32
grain (A)
Sorghum tea White sorghum Soaking, 13 (58%) 0 3 (6%) 2 (6%) 1 (3%) 9 (11%) 1 (3%) 3 (9%) 0 1 (1%) 1 (4%) 34 (Xiong et al. 2019)
whole grain steaming,
roasting
Red sorghum Soaking, 13 (47%) 0 3 (5%) 2 (6%) 0 8 (13%) 1 (1%) 3 (19%) 0 1 (1%) 1 (8%) 32 (Xiong et al. 2020)
whole grain steaming,
roasting
Black sorghum Soaking, 13 (49%) 0 3 (10%) 2 (12%) 0 7 (16%) 1 (3%) 2 (6%) 0 1 (3%) 1 (2%) 30
whole grain steaming,
roasting
Red sorghum Soaking, yeast 2 (5%) 0 3 (14%) 3 (3%) 0 5 (44%) 1 (1%) 4 (31%) 2 (2%) 0 0 20 (Sun et al. 2020)
whole grain fermentation,
steaming,
roasting
Red sorghum Soaking, LAB 2 (1%) 0 4 (8%) 0 0 11 (90%) 0 0 0 0 0 17
whole grain fermentation,
steaming,
roasting
Buckwheat tea Bran n/s 4 (8%) 3 (4%) 0 8 (59%) 3 (6%) 2 (4%) 1 (1%) 3 (13%) 0 1 (3%) 1 (1%) 26 (Peng et al. 2015)
Whole Plant n/s 4 (10%) 2 (5%) 1 (1%) 6 (48%) 3 (15%) 2 (3%) 1 (<1%) 4 (13%) 0 1 (4%) 1 (2%) 25
Germinated grain n/s 4 (13%) 3 (8%) 0 5 (43%) 1 (1%) 2 (4%) 0 4 (29%) 0 0 1 (2%) 20
Whole grain Soaking, steaming, 3 (7%) 0 0 1 (<1%) 0 4 (4%) 1 (1%) 21 (85%) 2 (2%) 0 2 (2%) 34 (Guo et al. 2017)
drying, de-
branning,
roasting
Whole plant Grinding, 10 (28%) 0 0 4 (10%) 0 6 (18%) 1 (1%) 8 (32%) 1 (1<%) 0 6 (11%) 36
extruding,
drying, roasting
Grain n/s 11 (22%) 3 (15%) 3 (4%) 5 (13%) 0 3 (41%) 1 (1%) 1 (1%) 0 1 (<1%) 2 (1%) 30 (Xu et al. 2019)
All data are obtained from solid phase microextraction and chromatography-mass spectrometry (SPME-GC-MS) analysis. Relative abundance (%) values are based on the characterized/identified volatile compounds (signal
peak area data or converted from quantified/semi-quantified data) and expressed on a total of 100% basis; data of unknown and un-characterized compounds are excluded.
 ¼ Relative abundance values are converted from quantified/semi-quantified data;
(A) ¼ Odor active volatile compounds data;
n/s ¼ Not specified;
(M) ¼ Data obtained from medium-level of roasting;
Yeast fermentation ¼ using Saccharomyces cerevisiae;
LAB fermentation ¼ using lactic acid bacteria Lactobacillus plantarum;
CRITICAL REVIEWS IN FOOD SCIENCE AND NUTRITION
2419
2420 Y. XIONG ET AL.
Figure 5. Flow chart of the preparation of traditional cereal grain-based fer-
mented nonalcoholic beverages. Summarized from the preparation of mahewu,
pozol, amazake, bushera, gow
e, kunun-zaki and kvass.
while white rice tea had a total of 37 volatiles, and alde-
hydes, alkanes and furans were the most abundant (Wu,
Zhai, et al. 2013; Zhao et al. 2016). These are the main vola-
tile compounds in rice tea and may make a significant con-
tribution to the tea aroma.
Barley tea: A previous study investigated the roasting
conditions of raw grain and steamed grain in the prepar-
ation of barley tea (Joung et al. 2018). It was found that
roasting had a huge impact on the tea volatile profile, and
the most desirable roasting condition for barley tea was at
245  C for 19 min (medium level roasting). The tea made
from raw grain using medium level roasting, had a total of
71 volatiles, with furans, pyrazines, pyrroles, alcohols and
ketones being predominant (Table 3). The tea made from
steamed grain, medium level roasting, had almost the same
volatile composition, but the concentration of these volatile
compounds was much higher, suggesting that barley tea
made from steamed grain may have better aroma quality
(Joung et al. 2018). The odor-active volatile compounds
(volatiles that produces odor detectable by the nose) of bar-
ley teas, whole grain tea and de-branned grain tea prepared
by roasting (Table 3), have recently been investigated by
Tatsu et al. (2020). A total of 32 odor-active volatiles were
identified in both the barley whole grain and de-branned
grain teas, and carboxylic acids, alcohols, ketones, aldehydes
and pyrazines were the main odor-active volatiles in barley
tea; among them, carboxylic acid, specifically acetic acid,
was the most abundant volatiles, accounting for 67% and
84% of the volatile content in the whole grain tea and de-
branned grain tea, respectively (Tatsu et al. 2020). The
quantitative olfactory profile analyses revealed that the bar-
ley tea had an overall strong smoky, roasty and malty and
weak fatty aroma. Furthermore, the odor activity values
(OAV ¼ volatile concentration/odor-threshold value) of indi-
vidual volatile compounds were also calculated, and com-
pounds with the highest OAV were 2-methoxyphenol (OAV
¼ 69), 2-acetylpyrazine (OAV ¼ 23), 2-acetyl-1-pyrroline
(OAV ¼ 19), 3-methylbutanal (OAV ¼ 12), 2-ethyl-3,5-
dimethylpyrazine (OAV ¼ 12). These compounds are
regarded as the key contributors to the barley tea aroma
(Tatsu et al. 2020).
Sorghum tea: The volatile compounds of sorghum tea,
prepared by soaking, steaming and then roasting, made
from different colored sorghum grains (white, red and black
sorghum) have been investigated and compared (Table 3)
(Xiong et al. 2019; Xiong et al. 2020). A total of 34, 32 and
30 of volatiles were identified in the white, red and black
sorghum teas, respectively. The volatile composition of these
teas was similar, and alkanes were the most abundant vola-
tiles, followed by esters, pyrazines, alcohols and aldehydes.
However, the volatile intensity/concentration varied greatly
between these teas. White sorghum tea had the most intense
and diverse volatile compounds, while black sorghum tea
had the lowest variety and concentration of volatiles (Xiong
et al. 2019; Xiong et al. 2020). Black sorghum has high levels
of condensed tannins, which may interact with starch and
proteins during tea processing and form bulk matrixes that
may trap volatiles (Xiong et al. 2020). White sorghum grain
may be the ideal material for sorghum tea preparation in
terms of volatile intensity and diversity (Xiong et al. 2020).
The volatile profile of sorghum tea made from a red sor-
ghum whole grain fermented with either yeast
(Saccharomyces cerevisiae) or LAB (Lactobacillus plantarum)
and then steamed and roasted has recently been investigated
(Table 3) (Sun et al. 2020). Tea made from yeast-fermented
sorghum had more diverse volatiles, of which esters, pyra-
zines and alcohols were the main volatiles, while tea made
from LAB-fermented sorghum had less diverse but more
abundant volatiles, and was almost exclusively dominated by
esters (Sun et al. 2020). Fermentation has a huge influence
on the volatile profile, but the impact on the sensory quality,
particularly aroma and flavor liking, of the fermented tea
needs further investigation.
Buckwheat tea: The volatile compounds of buckwheat tea
made from various buckwheat materials, including buck-
wheat bran, whole grain, germinated grain and whole plant,
are listed in Table 3 (Peng et al. 2015; Guo et al. 2017; Xu
et al. 2019). There are large differences between the volatile
compounds identified from different buckwheat teas and
different studies, but in general, pyrazines, aldehydes, alka-
nes and esters are the major and most abundant volatile
compounds in all reported buckwheat teas (Table 3). The
odor-active volatile compounds of buckwheat tea have also
been investigated (Qin et al. 2011). It was found that buck-
wheat tea had an overall roasted, malty and nutty aroma,
and volatile compounds with an odor activity value of more
than 10 (OAV  10) were considered as the major aroma
contributors in the tea. Odor-active volatiles including 2,3-
diethyl-5-methylpyrazine (OAV ¼ 170), benzeneacetalde-
hyde (OAV ¼ 139), nonanal (OAV ¼ 36-293), maltol (OAV
¼ 23), trimethylpyrazine (OAV ¼ 10), 2-ethyl-5-

methylpyrazine (OAV ¼ 7-48), 2,5-dimethyl-4-hydroxy-
3(2H)-furanone (OAV ¼ 1-69) and 2,5-dimethylpyrazine
(OAV ¼ 1-13) were regarded as the key compounds respon-
sible for the aroma of buckwheat tea (Qin et al. 2011).
Obviously, the volatile profile varies greatly between dif-
ferent cereals, cereal materials (whole grain, bran, etc.) and
their processing methods. The major volatile compounds in
cereal teas are alcohols, alkanes, aldehydes, esters and pyra-
zines. Alcohols in cereals are often associated with sweet,
floral and fruity odors, which may positively contribute to
the tea aroma (Xiong et al. 2020; Xiong et al. 2019). Alkanes
are often associated with unpleasant gasoline-like and waxy
odors, but these compounds generally have high odor
threshold values and thus low odor intensity (He et al.
2016). In addition, alkanes, as well as aldehydes, can also be
generated by lipid oxidation, and high levels of these com-
pounds may lead to off-flavor (Bryant and McClung 2011).
Esters, usually have sweet, fruity and green odors, but often
have very high odor thresholds and may not contribute sig-
nificantly to the overall aroma of roasted cereal tea (Xiong
et al. 2020). Pyrazines generally have low odor thresholds
and are responsible for the roasted aroma. Pyrazines are
products of Maillard reactions and Strecker degradations
during heat processing, and are the most important odor
constituents in roasted cereal tea that contribute to the
unique roasted, sweet, malty and nutty aroma (Xiong et al.
2020; Guo et al. 2017). These volatile compounds may be
the main contributors to the tea aroma, but further research
is required to closely examine the odor-active volatile com-
pounds, especially those with particularly attractive odor
characteristics.
Research regarding cereal grain teas has been on-going
for a while, with considerable work being done on the tea
health effects and aroma, as discussed above. Understanding
the bioactives, health effects and aroma of cereal teas enables
us to modify and develop cereal tea products with attractive
attributes and enhanced quality, to make cereal grain tea
more competitive with conventional teas and coffee.
Fermented nonalcoholic cereal grain beverages
Fermentation is an ancient processing technique used to
improve the nutritional value, taste and aroma of foods and
extend the shelf life. Because it is economical and easily
operational, fermentation has become one of the main
options for food processing, especially in developing coun-
tries. There is a vast number of fermented cereal beverages
produced around the world, most of which are traditional
beverages. The preparation of traditional fermented cereal
beverages is often crude, not standardized and involves a
variety of cereal materials, including single cereal, mixed
cereals or other non-cereal ingredients, as well as multiple
processing steps and techniques. To narrow the scope, this
section focuses on the most studied and single cereal-based
nonalcoholic fermented beverages, which are shown in
Table 2 and Figure 1. The main processing steps and techni-
ques involved in the preparation of these beverages are sum-
marized in Figure 5. In addition, most fermented cereal
CRITICAL REVIEWS IN FOOD SCIENCE AND NUTRITION 2421
beverages are naturally fermented and involve mixed cul-
tures of bacteria and fungi. The microorganisms involved in
the fermentation of these cereal beverages are presented in
Table 4.
Types of fermented non-alcohol cereal beverages
Fermented corn beverages
Mahewu, also known as amahewu and mageu, is a trad-
itional South African beverage made from corn meal. It is a
thin, gritty and sour type of drink often consumed by adults,
but it is also used to wean infants from 4 to 18 months of
age (Bvochora et al. 1999; Katongole 2008). Mahewu is trad-
itionally prepared simply by boiling corn porridge and then
cooled for fermentation at ambient temperature for
1–2 days. The fermentation is a spontaneous process utiliz-
ing natural microflora, and other cereals like sorghum, mil-
let and wheat are often incorporated during the
fermentation (Schweigart and Fellingham 1963; Gadaga
et al. 1999). The main microorganisms isolated from
mahewu are lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and yeasts, and LAB
Lactococcus lactis, is the main fermenting microorganism in
the spontaneous fermentation (Table 4) (Steinkraus 2018;
Katongole 2008). In Zimbabwe, mahewu has achieved suc-
cess in commercial production (Mugochi, Mutukumira, and
Zvauya 2001).
Pozol is a popular acidic Mexican traditional beverage
made from fermented corn dough (pozol also refers to the
fermented dough). Pozol is used for different purposes: as a
refreshing drink, food or as a therapeutic agent. It is
believed by indigenous people that mixing pozol with honey
can help to reduce fever and control diarrhea and other
intestinal related disorders (Marshall and Mejia 2011; Guyot
et al. 2004), although such therapeutic effect requires further
scientific investigation. Pozol is prepared by cooking corn in
a lime solution, then washing, grinding, kneading into small
doughs, which are then wrapped in banana leaves for fer-
mentation at ambient temperature from several hours to
several days, and the pozol drink is then made by mixing
the fermented dough with water (Marshall and Mejia 2011).
A complex microbial community, including bacteria, yeasts
and molds has been found in pozol. The main microorgan-
isms isolated in pozol are Lactococcus, Streptococcus,
Lactobacillus, Clostridium, Bifidobacterium and Enterococcus
species, among which Streptococcus is the dominate micro-
organism throughout the fermentation and accounts for
25–75% of the total microflora (Table 4) (Ampe et al. 1999;
Ben Omar and Ampe 2000; Escalante, Wacher, and Farr
es
2001). The LAB makes up 90–97% of the total active micro-
flora in pozol (Ampe et al. 1999).
Fermented rice beverages
Amazake is a sweet, viscous, nonalcoholic, traditional
Japanese beverage made from fermented rice that has been
consumed in Japan for over a thousand years (Oguro et al.
2017). Amazake is prepared by mixing steamed rice, rice-
koji (an ingredient produced by adding a fungus Aspergillus
Table 4. Summary of microorganisms involved in the fermentation of traditional cereal grain-based fermented nonalcoholic beverages. 2422

Beverages Microorganisms References

Main substrates Bacteria Fungi
Corn Mahewu Lactococcus lactis subsp. Lactis Yeasts: Candida haemulonii, (Gadaga et al. 1999;
Candida sorbophila, Katongole 2008)
Debaryomyces hansenii,
Saccharomyces capsularis,
Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Pozol Lactococcus lactis, Lactobacillus plantarum, Uncharacterized (Ampe et al. 1999; Ben Omar and
Y. XIONG ET AL.

Lactobacillus casei, Lactobacillus Ampe 2000; Escalante, Wacher,

alimentarium, Lactobacillus delbruekii, and Farr
es 2001)
Streptococcus suis, Bifidobacterium sp.,
Enterococcus spp., Clostridium sp.
Rice Amazake Uncharacterized Molds: Aspergillus spp., (Wada, Sakamoto, and
Aspergillus oryzae Matsugo 2018).
Sorghum Bushera Lactobacillus brevis, Lactobacillus fermentum, Uncharacterized (Muyanja, Narvhus, et al. 2003)
Lactobacillus plantarum, Lactobacillus
paracasei subsp. paracasei, Lactobacillus
delbrueckii subsp. delbrueckii, Enterococcus
faecium, Streptococcus thermophilus
Gow
e Lactobacillus fermentum, Lactobacillus Yeasts: Candida krusei, Candida (Vieira-Dalod
e et al. 2007; Greppi
mucosae, Weissella confusa, Weissella tropicalis, Clavispora lusitaniae, et al. 2013).
kimchi, Pediococcus acidilactici, Pediococcus Kluyveromyces marxianus
pentosaceus
Millet Kunun-zaki Lactobacillus plantarum, Lactobacillus Molds: Aspergillus niger, Fusarium (Agarry, Nkama, and Akoma
fermentum, Lactobacillus pentosus, oxysporum, Penicillium 2010; Amusa and Odunbaku
Lactobacillus cellbiosus, Lactococcus lactis, oxalicum 2008; Nwachukwu, Achi, and
Leuconostoc mesenteroides, Bacillus sutilis, Yeasts: Candida mycoderma, Ijeoma 2010)
Bacillus cereus, Streptococcus feaceaum, Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Streptococcus lactis, Staphylococcus aureus,
Micrococcus acidiophilis, Pseudomonas
aureginosa, Pediococcus pentosaceus
Rye Kvass Lactobacillus casei, Leuconostoc mesenteroides Yeasts: Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Dlusskaya et al. 2008)

oryzae to steamed rice) and water, and then heating at a
moderately high temperature (55–60  C) for 15–18 h (Oguro
et al. 2017; Yamamoto et al. 2011). During the amazake
preparation, the starch in rice is hydrolyzed by the enzymes
produced by Aspergillus oryzae, and the glucose concentra-
tion in the amazake can reach 20% (Oguro et al. 2017).
Aspergillus spp., in particular Aspergillus oryzae, are the pri-
mary fermenting microorganisms in Amazake (Wada,
Sakamoto, and Matsugo 2018).
Amazake has been shown to have a number of physio-
logical functions. It was reported that oral administration of
amazake significantly suppressed weight gain, reduced blood
triglyceride levels, and inhibited the accumulation of intra-
peritoneal fat in mice on a high-fat diet; and lowered blood
pressure in mice with salt-induced hypertension; and also
prevented a decrease in memory and learning performance
in mice injected with scopolamine (impaired learning and
memory) (Oura et al. 2007). The authors suggested that the
dietary fibers and peptides present in amazake might be
responsible for these effects. In addition, another study
showed that taking amazake at bedtime can also reduce the
subjective symptoms of patients with liver cirrhosis (Nagao
and Sata 2013). Amazake is rich in amino acids and vita-
mins, and it has been suggested that the branched-chain
amino acids in amazake may help improve the liver immune
system (Nagao and Sata 2013). Today, there is an increasing
trend in drinking amazake, and various types of amazake
beverages have been commercially produced on the market,
including white rice amazake, brown rice amazake, sake
cake amazake, with or without alcohol (Wada, Sakamoto,
and Matsugo 2018).
Fermented sorghum beverages
Bushera is a fermented sweet or sour beverage which is a
popular traditional beverage in Uganda. It is mostly made
from sorghum flour, from germinated or non-germinated
grain, but millet flour is often incorporated. To prepare
bushera, the flour is mixed, boiled in hot water, and then
cooled for fermentation (Muyanja, Kikafunda, et al. 2003;
Sekwati-Monang and G€anzle 2011). The fermentation is a
spontaneous process carried out at ambient temperature,
and the fermenting time ranges from 1 to 6 days depending
on the desired taste and the preference for sweet or sour
bushera by the end-user (Sekwati-Monang and G€anzle
2011). Sweet bushera is mainly used for weaning children as
a dietary supplement and has a fermentation time of about
12–24 h. The sour bushera is the main type of bushera,
mainly used for adults, as a thirst-quenching drink that is
prevalent in restaurants and markets; the fermentation time
is generally extended by 2–5 days compared to sweet bushera
(Sekwati-Monang and G€anzle 2011; Muyanja, Kikafunda,
et al. 2003). The main microorganisms isolated in bushera
made in the home are Lactobacillus brevis, Lactobacillus fer-
mentum, Lactobacillus plantarum, Lactobacillus paracasei,
Lactobacillus delbrueckii, Enterococcus faecium, Streptococcus
thermophilus and yeasts (Muyanja, Narvhus, et al. 2003)
(Table 4).
CRITICAL REVIEWS IN FOOD SCIENCE AND NUTRITION 2423
Gow
e is a light, smooth, sweet-sour, traditional cereal-
based fermented beverage from Benin. It has become a
popular beverage in Western Africa, consumed and favored
by all people, including children, pregnant women and the
elderly; the sweet reddish colored gow
e is the most preferred
(Michodjehoun-Mestres et al. 2005). Gow
e is mostly made
from sorghum flour (from germinated, non-germinated or
mixed grains), but other cereals like millet and corn are
often used or incorporated in preparation (Michodjehoun-
Mestres et al. 2005; Vieira-Dalod
e et al. 2007). The trad-
itional gow
e is prepared by mixing the flour with water and
left for a 12 h fermentation (first fermentation), and add-
itional materials (boiled flour/porridge) are added, mixed
and left for a 24-60 h fermentation (second fermentation).
The resulting slurry is then cooked to obtain the gow
e paste,
and the gow
e beverage is prepared by diluting the paste
with water (Michodjehoun-Mestres et al. 2005). The prepar-
ation of traditional gow
e is complicated, less efficient, and
often resulting in a low quality of the beverage.
Nevertheless, attempts have been made to improve the proc-
essing technique and product quality of gow
e
(Michodjehoun-Mestres et al. 2005; Seïdou et al. 2011). The
fermentation is a spontaneous process with naturally occur-
ring populations of LAB and yeasts (Vieira-Dalod
e et al.
2007; Greppi et al. 2013) (Table 4). The LAB isolated has
been identified as Lactobacillus fermentum, Lactobacillus
mucosae, Weissella confusa, Weissella kimchi, Pediococcus
acidilactici and Pediococcus pentosaceus (Vieira-Dalod
e et al.
2007). The yeasts isolated comprise Candida krusei, Candida
tropicalis, Clavispora lusitaniae and Kluyveromyces marxia-
nus (Greppi et al. 2013).
Fermented millet beverages
Kunun-zaki is a Nigerian indigenous cereal-based fermented
beverage. Kunun-zaki has sweet-sour, milky, creamy and
smooth characteristics and is favored by people of all ages
(Obadina, Oyewole, and Awojobi 2008). It is a popular bev-
erage with many uses, as a refreshing beverage, a thirst
quencher (especially during the dry season), or as a food
supplement and appetizer, and it is also believed to improve
the lactation of nursing mothers (Efiuvwevwere and Akona
1995; Oranusi, Umoh, and Kwaga 2003). Kunun-zaki is
mostly made from millet, although other cereals such as sor-
ghum, wheat, corn and rice are often used and/or incorpo-
rated (Agarry, Nkama, and Akoma 2010). The production of
kunun-zaki involves soaking, wet milling, sieving, sedimen-
tation, cooking (half of the sediment is cooked and the other
half is uncooked), mixing (cooked and uncooked sediments)
and then fermentation (Efiuvwevwere and Akona 1995). The
microorganisms isolated from kunun-zaki include bacteria
genera: Lactobacillus, Lactococcus, Leuconostoc, Bacillus,
Streptococcus, Staphylococcus, Micrococcus, Pseudomonas and
Pediococcus; and mold genera: Aspergillus, Fusarium and
Penicillium; and yeast genera: Candida and Saccharomyces
(Nwachukwu, Achi, and Ijeoma 2010; Agarry, Nkama, and
Akoma 2010; Amusa and Odunbaku 2008) (Table 4).
Among them, Lactobacillus plantarum, Lactobacillus fermen-
tum and Lactococcus lactis are found to be the dominant
2424 Y. XIONG ET AL.
fermenting microorganisms (Agarry, Nkama, and Akoma
2010). Kunun-zaki has been frequently studied due to its
crude and non-standardized preparation, short shelf life
(produced on a daily basis, and consumed within 18–36 h),
and, most importantly, concerns over microbial quality and
safety. Notwithstanding, several approaches, such as pasteur-
ization (Maji, James, and Chigozie 2011) and addition of
starter culture (Nwachukwu, Achi, and Ijeoma 2010), have
shown promising results in improving its quality, safety and
shelf life.
Fermented rye beverages
Kvass is a popular traditional beverage made from fer-
mented rye bread, rye malt and rye flour in Eastern and
Central Europe. It is a naturally carbonated drink with a
golden-brown color, sweet and sour taste, mixed rye bread
and yeast flavor, and may contain sediment/suspension
composed of yeasts (depending on the preparation method),
suitable for people of all ages (Gambu
s et al. 2015). Kvass is
considered to be a nonalcoholic beverage, although it may
contain trace amounts of alcohol (< 1.5%), and it is consid-
ered to be spoiled if alcohol accumulates at higher levels
(Dlusskaya et al. 2008; Lidums, Karklina, and Kirse 2016;
Gambu
s et al. 2015).
Fermentation is the main processing step in the produc-
tion of kvass. Traditional kvass is made from fermented
wholemeal rye bread, and all materials needed for the fer-
mentation are derived from the bread. The fermentation is a
spontaneous process carried out at room temperature for
several days, and the resulting product is usually unfiltered
and contains yeasts that give it a distinctive taste and aroma
(Dlusskaya et al. 2008; Gambu
s et al. 2015). The commercial
kvass is typically manufactured using rye flour boiled with
water, and rye malt. These materials are mixed and sub-
jected to saccharification (by malt enzymes) prior to fermen-
tation. The fermentation is a spontaneous process carried
out at 20  C for 12–24 h, and back-slopping is the com-
mon practice to initiate the fermentation. After fermenta-
tion, the resulting mixture is then filtered to make kvass
wort concentrate, which can be diluted with water or carbo-
nated water to make the kvass (Dlusskaya et al. 2008;
Lidums, Karklina, and Kirse 2016; Gambu
s et al. 2015).
Kvass is considered to be a probiotic beverage and is
believed to help eliminate digestive disorders like flatulence
and hyperacidity (Gambu
s et al. 2015), although the health
effect requires further investigation. The microorganisms/
probiotics in kvass have been rarely investigated. Only one
study by Dlusskaya et al. (2008) has investigated the micro-
organisms involved in a commercial kvass, and found that
LAB Lactobacillus casei and Leuconostoc mesenteroides, and
yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae were the main microorgan-
isms present (Table 4). It should be noted that traditional
kvass (unfiltered) may contain more probiotics with more
health benefits. Gambu
s et al. (2015) found that kvass pre-
pared by traditional method had higher dietary fiber, less
alcohol and sugar, and 60% higher antioxidant activity
(in vitro), compared to commercial kvass. Because of its
claims of beneficial health effects and pleasant flavor, kvass
has been one of the most commercialized and industrialized
fermented cereal beverages in Eastern and Central Europe.
Cereal fermentation and potential health benefits
The preparation of most traditional cereal-based fermented
beverages remains a household art (Figure 5). The type of
microflora developed in these beverages depends on the raw
materials, pre-processing (prior to fermentation) and, most
importantly, fermenting conditions such as pH, water activ-
ity and temperature (Ignat et al. 2020). The fermentation of
these beverages involves naturally occurring mixed cultures
of bacteria, yeasts and molds (Table 4), and some microor-
ganisms participate in parallel, while others act sequentially
with a changing dominance during the fermentation process
(Muyanja, Narvhus, et al. 2003; Nwachukwu, Achi, and
Ijeoma 2010; Michodjehoun-Mestres et al. 2005; Ignat et al.
2020). Research on the microbiology of these beverages is
still limited. Although the microorganisms in some of these
products have been isolated and characterized or tentatively
characterized, most of them are still unknown. In the cereal-
based fermented beverages we discussed above, the main fer-
menting bacteria are LAB, including species of Lactobacillus,
Lactococcus, Leuconostoc, Streptococcus, Pediococcus and
Bacillus (Table 4). The main fermenting yeasts are species of
Saccharomyces and Candida, and the molds involved are
Aspergillus, Fusarium and Penicillium species (Table 4). LAB
is the predominant microorganism in these beverages, and
thus lactic acid fermentation may be the main contributor
to the beneficial properties of fermented cereal beverages.
Fermentation can improve the shelf life of beverages by
increasing the acidity and thereby inhibiting certain spoilage
and harmful microorganisms (Phiri et al. 2020; Ignat et al.
2020). Moreover, some LAB and molds can also produce
bacteriocins and antibiotics, which can inhibit the growth of
spoilage and pathogenic microorganisms and improve the
safety and shelf life of the beverages (Ross, Morgan, and Hill
2002; Gemechu 2015). However, due to poor hygienic con-
ditions and practice, traditionally fermented cereal beverages
tend to have a short shelf life, such as kunun-zaki, which
has frequently been reported to cause safety incidents
(Oranusi, Umoh, and Kwaga 2003; Amusa and Odunbaku
2008; Umaru et al. 2014). Modern food processing technolo-
gies should be implemented to ensure the safety and quality
of these beverages.
During cereal fermentations, various volatile compounds
including organic acids (such as lactic and butyric acids),
alcohols (such as ethanol), aldehydes and ketones are
formed, resulting in a complex blend of flavors in the prod-
ucts (Blandino et al. 2003; Vieira-Dalod
e et al. 2016;
Muyanja, Narvhus, and Langsrud 2012). Although the vola-
tile compounds have a large influence on the quality of fer-
mented beverages, the volatile profile of these traditionally
fermented cereal beverages has rarely been studied and
requires further investigation. Nevertheless, it has been sug-
gested that the formation of volatile compounds depends
not only on the substrates (cereals) but also on the microbial

species and even strains (Salmeron et al. 2009; Salmer
on
et al. 2015).
Fermented cereal beverages are considered as functional
foods due to their nutritious and health-promoting proper-
ties (Achi and Ukwuru 2015). Fermentation can lower the
pH and provide desirable conditions for enzymatic degrad-
ation of anti-nutritional compounds such as tannins and
phytic acids (despite their health properties) and thus
improve the bioavailability of some minerals and proteins;
and for enzymatic hydrolysis of bound bioactive compounds
such as bound phenolic acids and flavonoids to improve
their bioavailability (Blandino et al. 2003; Acosta-Estrada,
Guti
errez-Uribe, and Serna-Sald
ıvar 2014; Mukherjee,
Chakraborty, and Dutta 2016; Tsafrakidou, Michaelidou,
and G Biliaderis 2020). Other beneficial compounds, such as
group B vitamins, can also be synthesized during cereal fer-
mentation by microorganisms (Blandino et al. 2003).
The health benefits of fermented cereal beverages are dir-
ectly related to the bioactive compounds present in the cere-
als (Table 1, Figure 2), as discussed in Section “Bioactive
phytochemicals in cereal grains.” In addition, fermented cer-
eal beverages are also potential probiotic or synbiotic foods.
Cereal grains are rich in dietary fibers such as resistant
starch, which can be used as fermentable substances (prebi-
otics) to fortify the development of probiotic microorgan-
isms such as some LAB (including Lactobacillus,
Lactococcus, Leuconostoc, Streptococcus, Pediococcus and
Bacillus species listed in Table 4) and yeasts (including
Saccharomyces and Candida species listed in Table 4)
(Charalampopoulos et al. 2002). Probiotics are live microor-
ganisms that can promote the health and well-being of the
host when administered in adequate amounts, and the bene-
fits of taking probiotics include aiding digestion, balancing
intestinal microflora, promoting gastrointestinal health and
improving the immune system (Oelschlaeger 2010; Beena
Divya et al. 2012; Ignat et al. 2020). Additionally, the micro-
bial metabolites produced during fermentation, including
some enzymes, organic acids, and bioactive peptides, can
also be beneficial to the health of the host (Beniwal, Semwal,
and Navani 2019; Tsafrakidou, Michaelidou, and Biliaderis
2020). Foods and beverages containing probiotics is cur-
rently a fast-growing trend worldwide (Salmer
on 2017),
hence likely there will be increasing demand for fermented
cereal beverages.
Summary and future perspectives
Cereals are rich sources of bioactive phytochemicals, with a
unique profile that is complementary to fruits and vegeta-
bles. The main bioactive phytochemicals in whole cereal
grains include phenolic compounds, dietary fibers, carote-
noids, tocols, phytosterols, c-oryzanol, and phytic acid. Most
of these compounds are concentrated in the bran fraction.
However, the bran is often removed during food processing
as it often leads to processing difficulties. For example, the
presence of phenolic compounds in cereal bran can inhibit
certain fermenting microorganisms and affect the fermenta-
tion process (Verni, Rizzello, and Coda 2019). Despite this,
CRITICAL REVIEWS IN FOOD SCIENCE AND NUTRITION 2425
cereal bran is a highly valuable health functional material,
which can be used to develop functional foods or beverages,
or as a fortifying ingredient to be added to foods
or beverages.
Cereal grain-based milk, a recent emergent on the mar-
ket, is a functional beverage with increasing global popular-
ity. Compared to cow’s milk, cereal milk is lactose-free,
hypoallergenic and contains bioactive components with
health-promoting properties as well as being economical and
sustainable. However, cereal milk faces some problems
related to nutritional imbalance, poor sensory experience,
processing difficulty and emulsion stability. Nevertheless,
new and advanced processing technologies such as UHPH
are being developed, which provides manufacturers an excel-
lent opportunity to solve these problems. Oat milk has
already had a huge commercial success, and rice milk and
corn milk are starting to appear on the supermarket shelves.
Hence this is the ideal time to exploit other un-utilized cere-
als, such as sorghum, barley, rye, etc., for alternatives to
cow’s milk. The uniqueness of cereal milk and its bioactives,
must be emphasized and innovatively exploited, beyond sim-
ply imitating cow’s milk, to produce new products that
excite consumers and sustain their interest.
Cereal grain tea has been the most frequently studied cer-
eal beverage in the past decade. In addition to the varieties
of cereal teas discussed above that are currently on the mar-
ket, other cereal grains/materials such as oat grain (Hao
et al. 2018) and wheat bran (Wang, Sun, Zhang, et al. 2019)
are being explored for the development of cereal tea. The
health effects of cereal tea beverages have been shown to be
closely related to their bioactive phytochemicals, and some
of the compounds responsible for certain health effects of
cereal tea have been identified, with others yet to be identi-
fied. One of the attractive features of cereal tea is its unique
roasted and malty aroma, but more research is needed to
identify the odor-active volatile compounds, and such know-
ledge is important for the development and fortification of
the tea aroma. In order for cereal grain tea to successfully
compete with traditional leaf teas or coffees, considerably
more work will be required to understand how to optimize
the processing conditions to achieve the optimum phenolic
and bioactive profile with premium tea quality.
Regarding cereal grain-based fermented nonalcoholic bev-
erages, there is a global diversity of products. However,
most of the fermented cereal beverages are still made in
households and small local workshops and have not received
much commercial and scientific attention. Fermentation can
improve the flavor, safety, nutritional value and health-pro-
moting properties of cereal beverages. Nevertheless, the
crude and non-standardized preparation of these traditional
fermented cereal beverages, and poor hygiene during pro-
duction, give rise to microbial food safety concerns, which
need to be addressed. Further research could identify the
key attributes and bacterial/fungal species that are associated
with premium flavor and aroma and develop standardized
starter cultures to control the microbial profile and enhance
food safety, while maintaining sensory quality and health
benefits. The fermented cereal beverages are potential
2426 Y. XIONG ET AL.
probiotic beverages and have been considered as functional
foods, but the health effects of these traditionally fermented
cereal beverages have been poorly studied, requiring further
research to establish reliable evidence.
Disclosure statement
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Funding
This work was financially supported by Taiyuan Brand Will Firm
Biotechnology Development Co., Ltd, Taiyuan, China (project No. GL
022055 - TA 39201) and Melbourne Research Scholarship from the
University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.
ORCID
Zhongxiang Fang http://orcid.org/0000-0002-9902-3426
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