Chin. J. Mech. Eng.
(2017) 30:528–543
DOI 10.1007/s10033-017-0123-3
REVIEW ARTICLE
Machining the Integral Impeller and Blisk of Aero-Engines:
A Review of Surface Finishing and Strengthening Technologies
Youzhi Fu1 • Hang Gao1 • Xuanping Wang1 • Dongming Guo1
Received: 28 February 2017 / Revised: 12 March 2017 / Accepted: 28 March 2017 / Published online: 17 April 2017
Ó Chinese Mechanical Engineering Society and Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2017
Abstract The integral impeller and blisk of an aero-engine
are high performance parts with complex structure and
made of difficult-to-cut materials. The blade surfaces of the
integral impeller and blisk are functional surfaces for
power transmission, and their surface integrity has signif-
icant effects on the aerodynamic efficiency and service life
of an aero-engine. Thus, it is indispensable to finish and
strengthen the blades before use. This paper presents a
comprehensive literature review of studies on finishing and
strengthening technologies for the impeller and blisk of
aero-engines. The review includes independent and inte-
grated finishing and strengthening technologies and dis-
cusses advanced rotational abrasive flow machining with
back-pressure used for finishing the integral impeller and
blisk. A brief assessment of future research problems and
directions is also presented.
Keywords Integral impeller and blisk  Aero-engine 
Surface integrity  Surface finishing  Surface strengthening
Supported by Science Fund for Creative Research Groups of NSFC
(51621064), National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant
No. 51475074, 11302043), and the Fundamental Research Funds for
the Central Universities (DUT15QY37).
& Xuanping Wang
xpwang@dlut.edu.cn
1
Key Laboratory for Precision and Non-traditional Machining
Technology of Ministry of Education, Dalian University of
Technology, Dalian 116024, China
123
1 Introduction
High-performance parts with complex structure consisting
of difficult-to-cut materials have been proposed and pro-
duced for high-end equipment in the fields of aerospace,
energy, chemical industry, and transportation. In the avia-
tion industry, the integral impeller and blisk, as shown in
Fig. 1, are subjected to cycling loads during their service
life. Compared with conventional blade-assembled disks,
they have higher rigidity, lower air leak, and lower weight.
Moreover, they provide high compressor efficiency, the
maximum engine thrust-to-weight ratio, and high operation
reliability for aero-engines. Therefore, the integral impeller
and blisk can quickly occupy the military engine market
[1, 2]. Currently, the integral impeller and blisk are
extensively used in military and commercial aircraft
engines, e.g., F120, F414, EJ200, and PW600, and in the
first two stages of the high-pressure compressor of a mil-
itary engine in China [3, 4]. In the F414 engine, the first
three stages of the high-pressure compressor consist of
blisks, saving as much as 20.41 kg and increasing the
thrust-to-weight ratio from 7.4 to 9. In Rolls-Royce Motor
Cars Ltd., the weight of engines is reduced by approximate
50% with the use of the integral impeller and blisk [5].
Some essential features of the integral impeller and blisk
that enhance the service performance and reliability of
aero-engines are considered as follows:
(1) Complex and integral structure: thin blade (with a
thickness range of 0.1-0.6 mm; the arc radius of the
leading/trailing edge is less than 0.1 mm); free-form
surface and twist blade profiles; narrow channel of
two adjacent blades (e.g., the width of the blade root
is 4 mm and that of the blade tip is 15 mm in some
blisks); different construction types (shrouded, semi-
Machining the Integral Impeller and Blisk of Aero-Engines
Fig. 1 Integral impeller and blisk in an aero-engine
open, and open); and wide size range (the size range
of blades is from 20 mm to 1000 mm).
(2) Difficult-to-cut materials: nickel-base alloy, titanium
alloy, and superalloy with high mechanical proper-
ties, high chemical stability, high hardness, low heat
expansion coefficient, etc.
(3) High surface integrity: high accuracy in dimension
and surface contour, with compressive residual
stresses in surface layers.
The surface contour errors for the blades of a qualified
integral impeller and blisk should be less than 0.05 mm,
and the surface roughness Ra should be kept around 0.25-
0.4 lm for some high-pressure compressor blades. Fur-
thermore, the shapes of leading/trailing edges should meet
the design requirements; in particular, compressive residual
stress is desired and cracks are undesired on blade surfaces.
Numerous studies have revealed that the surface integ-
rity of blades has significant effects on the service perfor-
mance and reliability of the integral impeller and blisk
during operation under harsh environments, such as at high
speed, high pressure, and high temperature.
A high roughness of the blade surface leads to earlier
boundary layer transition [6], increase in friction factor [7],
decrease in heat transfer efficiency [8] and total pressure
[9]. Boynton, et al [10] reported that smooth blades yield a
turbine efficiency of 87.92%.Compared with rough blades,
this was a 2.5% improvement of the efficiency, which
reduced the turbine inlet temperature by 32 K and
increased turbine durability. Rolls-Royce Ltd.’s research
results showed that the compressor efficiency increases
from 89% to 94% when the blade surface roughness Ra
decreases from 0.5 lm to 0.2 lm and machining accuracy
decreases from 60 lm to 12 lm [11]. As illustrated in
Fig. 2 [12], for a given mass flow, the efficiency degra-
dation of a rough-coated rotor is greater than that of a
smooth-coated rotor. Moreover, the difference of efficiency
degradation between rough-coated and smooth-coated
rotors increases with the increase of testing speed.
Residual stress, micro-hardness, and micro-crack are
considered as the most critical parameters that can directly
affect the fatigue lives and functional performances of
529
Fig. 2 Pressure ratio for different coated rotors at 60, 80, and 100%
of design speed [12]
Crystal boundary crack 4% Other cause 6%
High temperature Creep 2% Microcrack 6%
damage 7%
LCF 6%
Mechanical
damage 11%
LCF 5%
HCF 71% HCF 82%
(a) Turbine blades (b) Compressor blades
Fig. 3 Statistical analysis of the failure modes of blades [19]
integral impellers and blisks [13, 14]. According to the
Failure Analysis Center in China Aviation Industry Group,
greater than 70% of failures of blades were fatigue failures
caused by either a high cycle fatigue (HCF) or low cycle
fatigue (LCF) [15], as shown in Fig. 3. When an aero-
engine operates at high speed, gravel or sand with velocity
up to 300 m/s are ingested into the aero-engine, and small
indentations are produced, which can become sites for
fatigue crack initiation [16, 17]. The compressive residual
stress in the blade surface is helpful for shifting crack
initiation from the surface to interior inclusions to restrain
crack initiation and propagation; therefore, compressive
residual stress is needed in practical applications [18].
Currently, the most commonly used techniques in the
forming process of integral impellers and blisks are pre-
cision casting [20, 21], computer number control(CNC)
milling [22, 23], and electrochemical machining (ECM)
[24, 25]. Although precision casting yields blades with
good surface profile, defects of gas holes, coarse grains,
and shrinkage cavities, are found on the surface. In CNC
milling, blade flutter reduces the dimensional accuracy and
increases the blade surface roughness Ra (up to 0.8 lm),
and cutting-tool wear is severe. ECM results in corrosion
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layers on the blade surface and the surface roughness Ra of
approximate 0.8–6.3 lm. These defects will lead to the
decrease in fatigue strength and service performance of
blades.
The above technologies cannot yield qualified integral
impellers and blisks with high blade surface integrity;
therefore, finishing and strengthening processes are indis-
pensable before the use of the integral impeller and blisk.
This study is concerned with the commonly used finishing
and strengthening technologies for the integral impeller
and blisk. Particularly, integration technologies are applied
for both processes. Moreover, our attempts and new ideas
based on rotational abrasive flow machining (RAFM)
technology are introduced and discussed.
2 Surface Finishing Technologies for Integral
Impeller and Blisk
2.1 Manual Finishing
As shown in Fig. 4, during the manual finishing process,
handheld finishing devices (e.g., handheld belt sander,
electric polishing machine) with abrasive belts or a flap
wheel are used to finish high-performance parts with
complex structures. Final surface quality is entirely
dependent on the experiences and skills of workers.
Therefore, it is an inefficient and expensive finishing pro-
cess with poor working conditions.
As a conventional finishing technique, manual finishing
has been used to remove recast layers, corrosion layers, and
tool marks on blade surfaces. The final surface roughness
Ra is often in the range of 0.4–0.8 lm, and irregular surface
textures are generated. In practical applications, an unde-
sirable shape of the leading/trailing edge (such as a faceted
leading edge) may be generated. Overgrinding or under-
grinding usually occurs near the edges of the blade surface,
the qualification rate is lower than 40%, resulting in a
decrease of 12%–15% in the power performance of an
aero-engine [26].
Fig. 4 A blade machined by manual finishing process
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Y. Fu et al.
The main problems of using manual finishing to finish
integral impellers and blisks are as follows [27]:
(1) An irregular surface texture may be obtained, which
affects the aerodynamic performance of aero-
engines.
(2) This method is rather inefficient for finishing blade
surfaces.
(3) It is difficult to achieve the target profile accuracy.
Thus, manual finishing is not suitable for finishing
blades, integral impellers, and blisks, and alternative fin-
ishing techniques have been proposed.
2.2 Belt Grinding and CNC Polishing
Belt grinding is a high-efficiency, low-temperature, and
low-cost machining process with the combined effects of
grinding and finishing. To improve the quality of the fin-
ished surface, automated belt or wheel grinding techniques
were developed based on a robotic system or multi-axis
numerical control machine, and they are already used to
finish signal blades and integral impellers, as shown in
Fig. 5.
In the grinding process, contact pressure, as well as
friction forces have significant effects on material removal,
surface roughness, and residual stress [28]. For grinding
free-form surfaces, robot-controlled belt grinding with six-
axis robots has been employed, simulation systems were
established to plan the grinding path, and a real-time
simulation of the grinding process was performed [29, 30].
A new grinding-force control system has been developed to
generate a constant contact force throughout the grinding
process, which is used to obtain smooth free-form surfaces
[31]. An adaptive robotic path planning approach has been
developed based on a passive compliance tool and adaptive
robotic path planner, and the resulting profile and final
surface roughness could meet stringent quality require-
ments [32, 33]. To obtain a higher blade surface quality and
dimensional accuracy, a new polishing force-exerting
technique was developed and applied in a six-axis machine.
As shown in Fig. 6, the tension and polishing force can be
controlled by the tension cylinder and driving cylinder in
the new mechanism [34].
By force control systems, various belt grinding machi-
nes have been developed and widely used for the highly
efficient precision grinding of blades and vanes in China,
such as the five-axis simultaneous turbine blade machining
center (BMEI Co., Ltd.), robotic grinding and polishing
system integrated with measurement, manipulation and
manufacturing (Huazhong University of Science and
Technology), six-axis and nine-axis simultaneous CNC
abrasive belt grinding machine (Huazhong Numerical
Control Co., Ltd), and six-axis simultaneous CNC abrasive
Machining the Integral Impeller and Blisk of Aero-Engines
Fig. 5 Belt grinding for signal
blade and integral impeller
Rectification mechanism Guide roller
Coupling mechanism Driving roller
Contact roller
Guide mechanism Driving cylinder Tension cylinder
Fig. 6 Schematic diagram of flexible grinding head
belt grinding machine 2MY55200-6NC (Chongqing Sam-
hida Grinding Machine Co., Ltd). However, owing to the
large dimensions of the abrasive belt and grinding head,
belt grinding is only suitable for the finishing process of a
single blade, rather than an integral impeller or blisk.
To improve the machining reachability, a spherical
grinding head was proposed to replace the abrasive belt,
which is usually fixed on a CNC polishing machine. A
highly accurate polishing technique was developed by Wu,
et al [35]. They used an elastic ball-type wheel to fit the
free-form surface and obtained the optimal polishing
parameters of contact pressure and movement speeds. A set
of experiments were conducted in Northwestern
Polytechnical University to finish a blisk by a five-axis
CNC machine with a flank grinding head [36]; the final
surface roughness Ra was 0.3–0.4 lm, and the process
efficiency was increased by 50% compared with manual
finishing.
In CNC polishing, the CNC program is complicated, the
fringe effects near blade edges lead to faceted lead-
ing/trailing edges, and it is difficult to finish a blade root
because of the narrow channel between two adjacent
blades. In practical applications, manual modification is
indispensable for a better blade surface finish after the
CNC polishing process.
2.3 Vibratory Finishing and Drag Finishing
Abrasives in manual finishing, belt grinding, and CNC
polishing are fixed on a polishing wheel or belt, and the
motions of abrasives are limited by the grinding head,
531
which has difficulty in reaching the blade root with a
narrow space. To avoid this limitation, vibratory and drag
finishing were proposed.
In the vibratory finishing process, the vibrating tub is
filled with loose abrasives, and its vibrating motion creates
an abrasive action. Consequently, sliding friction and the
impact of abrasives are observed on the workpiece surface.
Numerous studies have focused on the effect of frequency,
amplitude of vibration, processing time, and size of abra-
sives on material removal and the final surface roughness.
In Song’s research, it was proved that the impact force
between the abrasive and workpiece surface increases with
the increase of vibration frequency, and a high impact force
could result in high material removal. Further, the chemical
solution may generate a thin oxide layer, which is easily
removed by the abrasives [37]. A continuum finite element
model was successfully used to simulate the flow behavior
in a tub vibratory finisher [38]. Extensive experimental
investigations indicated that the relative velocity between
the workpiece and abrasives is the main factor governing
the material removal [39]. Some attempts were conducted
to finish blades by using vibratory finishing owing to its
considerably lower manufacturing cost and better surface
consistency. For example, blades were placed in order in an
oscillating tub, and a series of experiments was conducted
with different frequencies, amplitudes of vibration, pro-
cessing time, and type of abrasive. The best final surface
roughness Ra was approximately 0.4 lm, and most blades
were strengthened by the impact of the loose abrasives
[40, 41].
Based on vibratory finishing, the more efficient drag
finishing was proposed. Fig. 7 shows the drag finishing
machine of Rösler Oberflächentechnik GmbH. The drag
finishing machine has several workstations, and its tub is
filled with loose abrasive. In this process, workpieces are
clamped in a handling device and immersed into the
vibrating tub. Compared with vibratory finishing, drag
finishing can offer a higher impact speed and pressure,
which result in up to 10-40 times higher metal removal
rate. Thus, this process is especially applicable to high-
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Fig. 7 Drag finishing of blisk

performance parts consisting of difficult-to-cut materials

(e.g., titanium, nickel-base alloy). The surface roughness of
turbine blades after shot peening (SP) and drag finishing
reduced from 1.8 lm to 0.25 lm [42]. Robot-guided drag
finishing using an industrial six-axis robot was developed,
in which the workpieces are guided through the resting or
vibrating abrasive. This method may improve the reacha-
bility of the abrasives [43, 44].
The above analysis mainly focuses on the material
removal mechanism, effects of process parameters, and
finishing efficiency. For the finishing process of an integral Fig. 8 Schematic diagram of AFM
impeller and a blisk, the reachability of the abrasives and
uniformity of the surface finish should be considered. F0 Compressive Fn
Owing to the changing space of two adjacent blades of an residual stress
Flow direction
integral impeller and a blisk, velocities of abrasives Viscoelastic Y ap
impacting on the blade surface are different, resulting in F1 media
Fa O Z
the nonuniformity of the blade surface quality, such as Chip (b) Scratch behavior
higher material removal near leading/trailing edges com- Finished surface
Y Fn
pared to that at the blade root. Therefore, it is still difficult END
1
to obtain blades with better uniformity by using vibratory O X
drag finishing. (a) Force on active abrasive (c) Finished surface

2.4 Abrasive Flow Machining Fig. 9 Process principle of AFM process

Abrasive flow machining (AFM) is a typical finishing
technique using semi-solid abrasive media as the cutting
tool, and it is widely used for deburring, polishing,
radiussing, and removal of recast layers. In this process,
abrasive media are extruded across the workpiece surface
to remove a small quantity of material, as indicated in
Fig. 8. Abrasive media are a mixture of polymer, abrasives,
processing oil, etc., and it easily flows through complex
channels with dead areas. With the bounding of the poly-
mer, it is difficult for the abrasives to change their orien-
tations. Thus, compared with vibratory and drag finishing,
the controllability of abrasive is better in AFM.
In the AFM process, abrasive media, parameters, and
fixture are crucial factors that significantly affect the sur-
face integrity and material removal. Figure 9 shows the
process principle of material removal in the AFM process.
Fa and Fn are the axial and normal force of the active
abrasive, respectively. The extrusion pressure P produces
F0 and F1, which are the axial and normal force of the
media acting on the active abrasive, and the force transfer
between F0, F1 and Fa, Fn are determined by the vis-
coelastic properties of abrasive media. Under the action of
Fa and Fn, the abrasive scratches the surface with a cut
depth of ap.
Numerous studies have focused on optimizing the pro-
cess parameters, characteristics of abrasive media, and
design of the fixture, as well as on developing a new ver-
sion of AFM technology. A comprehensive analysis of
abrasive concentration, mesh size, media flow speed, and
number of cycles was conducted by Jain, et al, and

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Machining the Integral Impeller and Blisk of Aero-Engines
numerical models were established for surface finish
improvement and material removal [45]. The cutting force
and active grain density were predicted, and the material
removal mechanism was studied [46, 47]. The effects of
rheological characterization of abrasive media with dif-
ferent carriers, mesh size, and concentration of abrasives
on the surface finish were investigated [48, 49]. The
lubrication of abrasive media can improve its wall slip
behavior, which is beneficial to material removal in the
AFM process [50]. RAFM and magnetorheological abra-
sive flow machining were proposed to improve finishing
performance [51, 52]. Soft abrasive flow machining is a
new finishing process with low-viscosity abrasive media,
and research results show that it is suitable for the finishing
process of narrow channels [53–55].
The AFM process has been widely used in aero-engines.
In General Electric (GE) Company, the blades of an axial-
flow compressor in the T700 aero-engine were finished
using AFM. The blade surface roughness Ra reduced from
2.0 lm to 0.8 lm, and the processing time for each blade
decreased from 40 h with manual finishing to 1 h with
AFM [56]. Fig. 10 shows the surface topography of an
axial-flow integral impeller before and after the AFM
process in Extrude Hone Corporation, and tool marks on
blade surfaces were completely removed. In the Arriel
aero-engine, the blades of an axial-flow integral impeller
consisting of titanium were finished using manual finishing
and AFM. For an initial blade surface roughness Ra of
approximate 0.9 lm, manual finishing resulted in a final
surface roughness Ra up to 0.4 lm with a processing time
of 7–8 h, while AFM resulted in a final surface roughness
Ra of 0.2–0.4 lm, which meets the design requirements
[57]. An integral impeller machined by NC milling (surface
roughness Ra of 3.2–6.3 lm), an integral shroud turbine
disc machined by electrosparking (surface roughness Ra of
3.2 lm), and a special-shaped blade machined by ECM
(surface roughness Ra of 0.8–1.6 lm) were finished using
the AFM process. The final blade surface roughness values
decreased and compressive residual stress increased [58].
Meanwhile, a series of AFM machines was designed and
applied in practical production. The research institutions
Fig. 10 Surface topography of
integral impeller before and
after AFM process
533
and companies producing commonly used AFM machines
include Micro Technica Co., Ltd.; Extrude Hone Corpo-
ration; Taiyuan University of Technology; Beijing Aero-
nautical Manufacturing Technology Research Institute; and
Kunshan SPKS Co., Ltd. However, in practical applica-
tions, relatively less attention has been paid to the surface
uniformity of workpieces with complex structure, com-
pensation strategy for material removal that decreases with
the increase of media temperature, appropriate process
parameters, and fixture design.
The advantages and disadvantages of each finishing
technology used for integral impellers and blisks are
summarized in Table 1. In the finishing process, process
efficiency, reachability of the finishing tool, uniformity of
surface quality, and shape of the leading/trailing edges are
the vital factors that must be considered.
3 Surface Strengthening Technologies for Integral
Impeller and Blisk
The two main failure models of blades in aero-engines are
foreign object damage (FOD) and fatigue failure. New
micro-cracks and damages may be generated by FOD, and
under alternative load, micro-cracks may be produced and
extended on the blade surface. From the statistics of failure
models of failed blades, it was found that appropriately
90% of the failures are fatigue failures [19]. The
microstructure of the material, machining defects, and
errors (e.g., cracks, tensile residual stress) in the blade
surface are crucial factors that result in the initiation and
growth of cracks. Figure 11 shows the effects of residual
stress on the initiation and growth of a crack; it is inferred
that tensile residual stress can result in the initiation and
growth of cracks, and compressive residual stress can
prevent the growth of cracks. In addition, with the con-
tinuous impacts of foreign objects, the blade fatigue
strength is reduced, e.g., the blade fatigue strength of the
F101 aero-engine was reduced from 518 MPa to 138 MPa
after a foreign object impacted the leading edge of the first-
grade fan blades [59].
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Table 1 Advantages and disadvantages of finishing technologies for process for blades is indispensable to induce compressive
integral impeller and blisk residual stress to reduce the brittle phase and micro-defects.
Finishing Finishing Advantages Disadvantages When an integral impeller and a blisk are in operation,
methods tool stress concentration usually occurs at the blade root, and
FOD appears near blade edges. Therefore, the blade root,
Manual Finishing Easy operation Non-uniform finished
finishing disk surface; faceted blade tip, and leading edge are the key areas to be
Simple device
Finishing leading/trailing edge; strengthened [60], as shown in Fig. 12(a).
wheel low process To obtain the desired strengthening effects on the blade
efficiency; terrible surface of an integral impeller and a blisk, some crucial
working condition
points should be focused on:
Belt Abrasive Better Large grinding head
grinding belt controllability resulting in bad (1) Sufficient compressive stress on both sides of the
Higher reachability blade surface
efficiency (2) Feasible and efficient strengthening strategies to
strengthen a blade root with narrow space
CNC Spherical Better Expensive device; (3) Good profile accuracy and low surface roughness
polishing grinding controllability complex programs to
head avoid interference after the strengthening process: without distortion on
High efficiency
Elastic between blade and the blade tip and leading edge, a better blade surface
ball-type finishing tool; fringe with surface roughness Ra less than 0.4 lm and
wheel effect on blade homogeneous surface topography in strengthened
edges; manual
Flank
modification process areas.
grinding
after CNC polishing
head Shot peening (SP) and laser shot peening (LSP) are the
commonly used strengthening techniques employed in
Vibratory/ Loose Easy operation Non-uniform finished
Drag abrasive surface; faceted
blade-surface strengthening treatments. The fundamental
Simple device
finishing and leading/trailing edge; studies and applications of the strengthening process for
Higher
solution overgrinding and the integral impeller and blisk will be introduced here.
efficiency
undergrinding of
blade surface
3.1 Shot Peening
Abrasive Semi-solid Preferable Complicated
flow abrasive reachability technological SP is a cold strengthening process used to prevent fatigue
machining media Better parameters; failure and stress corrosion and to prolong product life. In
controllability characteristics of
abrasive flow media; this process, small spherical shots (e.g., steel shots, cast
complicated design shots, glass and ceramic beads) accelerated by air, water, or
of fixture centrifugal wheel are thrown to the surface to be
strengthened. A plastically deformed surface layer and
compressive residual stress are generated in the surface
Tensile Residual Stress Crack initiation and growth layer, as shown in Fig. 13.
Compared to the base material, lower fatigue lives were
observed when samples were polished with No.100 mesh
Crack Crack sandpaper along axial and circumferential textures. By
Workpiece Workpiece using wet SP, the fatigue lives of machining parts were
Shot peening
Compressive Residual Stress increased by approximate 12 times compared to that of the
Laser shot peening base material [61]. In the SP process, the intensity, cov-
... erage, and material of the media are the most important
Plastic deformation layer Crack parameters that have significant effects on the distribution
Compressive residual stress Workpiece of residual stress, surface roughness, surface texture, and
High surface hardness
surface hardness. Experimental results indicated that the
Fig. 11 Effects of residual stress on initiation and growth of crack residual stress and depth of stress field increase with the
increase of SP intensity [62]. After an SP process with a
After the finishing process, the surface quality is constant shot flow rate, the surface roughness increases
improved, while cracks and tensile residual stress still exist with an increase in air pressure [63].
on the blade surface. They are pernicious for the service Observable improvements in the LCF and HCF of a
performance of aero-engines. Thus, a surface strengthening blade were observed after SP without any thermal effect

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Machining the Integral Impeller and Blisk of Aero-Engines 535

Fig. 12 Crucial strengthened

regions on blade surface

peening time of 2–15 min. The final surface roughness Ra

decreased from 2.04 lm to 1.02 lm, and the oxidation
resistance of vanes was improved [68].
In the SP process, blade surfaces are impacted by shots
with a high relative velocity (40-70 m/s), as indicated in
Fig. 14. After the SP process, obvious deformation is
observed on the blade surfaces. In this light, several crucial
problems illustrated below should be focused on:
(1) The blade surface roughness increases, and the
deformation of the blade surface, especially blade
edges, may be generated.
(2) The depth of the strengthened layer is low; in
particular, the strengthening effect of the blade root
is restrained by the narrow space between two
Fig. 13 Schematic diagram of SP adjacent blades.

[64, 65]. Experiments on the SP process of blades made of

3.2 Laser Shot Peening
titanium alloy VT8 were performed by Boguslaeva, et al.
[66]. The blades were preprocessed by vibratory finishing,
To overcome the problems in the SP process, the LSP
and the shots used in the experiments were accelerated by
process was developed to strengthen high-performance
incoming air with a pressure 0.08–0.12 MPa. Finally, the
parts. As shown in Fig. 15, the surface to be strengthened is
endurance limit of blades increased by 10% (from 430 to
covered by an ablative medium (black paint or tape) with a
470 MPa), and the surface roughness of blades remained
curtain of confining medium (glass or flowing water). A
almost constant. For the blades of a steam turbine, the
short pulse laser with high intensity (pulse duration: several
required compressive residual stress is greater than
to several tens of nanoseconds; power density: greater than
300 MPa at a depth of 0.25 mm, and the surface roughness
109 W/cm2) passes through the confining medium and
Rz is less than 22 lm. A compressive residual stress of
strikes the ablative medium. With the laser energy, the
310 MPa at a depth of 0.25 mm and surface roughness
ablative medium begins to vaporize. After absorbing suf-
Rz = 13.82 lm and Ra = 2.46 lm (initial surface rough-
ficient energy, high-pressure plasma ([ 1 GPa) is gener-
ness Rz0 = 4.40 lm and Ra0 = 0.07 lm) were achieved
ated, and shock waves are driven into the material owing to
after the SP process with the following optimal parameters:
the limitation of the confining medium. If the strength of
peening intensity of 0.32 A, tank pressure of 0.3 MPa, and
shock waves exceeds the dynamic yield strength of the
diameter of cast steel shot of 1.0 mm. Both the compres-
material, plastic deformation and compressive residual
sive residual stress and surface roughness satisfy the
stress near the target surface are generated [69].
requirements [67]. In Li’s study, guide vanes consisting of
A workpiece consisting of 6061-T6 alloy was strength-
IC6 alloy were coated with NiCoCrAlY and strengthened
ened using low-energy LSP, and the thickness of the
by SP with the following parameters: peening pressure of
strengthened surface layer was approximately 1.2 mm. A
0.2–1.0 MPa, shot diameter of 0.25–0.32 lm, and shot

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536
Fig. 14 Blisk and blade
strengthened using SP
Laser beam
109W/cm2
High-pressure plasma
(Confining medium)
Water
Black paint
(Ablative medium)
Workpiece Shock wave
Fig. 15 Schematic diagram of LSP [70]
190% increase in surface compressive residual stress was
obtained [71]. In Lavender’s research, a mold consisting of
A2 tool steel was strengthened by LSP, and the compres-
sive residual stress was up to 900 MPa at a depth of
0.1 mm [72]. Owing to its better strengthening effect, LSP
has been widely used to enhance high-performance parts in
aero-engines, e.g., parts in the Harrier Jet engine were
strengthened using LSP to improve the reliability. In 1997,
LSP was used to strengthen the blades of a gas turbine
engine in GE Company. In 2003, in order to meet the
service requirements of the F/A-22 fighter, the blisks of the
fourth-grade high-pressure compressor of F119 were
strengthened using LSP, as shown in Fig. 16. The blade
fatigue strength increased to 413.7 MPa, which exceeds the
target value 379 MPa, and the fretting fatigue life of the
Fig. 16 Blisk in F119-PW-100 strengthened using LSP
123
Y. Fu et al.
blade root increased to 25 times that of untreated blades
[73, 74].
In China, LSP technology was studied in the early
1990s. In Zhang’s [75] studies, turbine blades consisting of
LY2 aluminum alloy were strengthened using LSP. The
depth of the plastic deformation layer was greater than
2 mm, and compressive residual stress and micro-hardness
were significantly improved. LSP was used to strengthen
the fourth-grade blades, the compressive residual stress and
micro-hardness of the blade surface were measured, and
the experimental data may provide an experimental foun-
dation for the strengthening process of the integral impeller
and blisk [76, 77].
SP and LSP have been developed in recent years and
have been proven to be successful in the strengthening
process of high-performance parts made of different
materials. The strengthening effects of SP and LSP on
7050-T7451 alloy were researched, and the experimental
results show that LSP can induce a deeper compressive
residual stress (greater than 2 mm) with good surface finish
compared to SP (depth of compressive residual stress:
approximate 0.25 mm). Therefore, LSP yields better fati-
gue performance compared to SP [78]. Compared with the
SP process, the LSP process can induce deeper and larger
compressive residual stress, better surface finish, shorter
clean-up time, and better adaptability for complex geom-
etry [79]. In the industry, a safe and stable laser is the
crucial factor that constraints the use of LSP. Moreover,
LSP requires high capital cost; therefore, a decision for the
strengthening process should be made considering the
processing cost and strengthening effect.
4 Integration Technologies for Finishing
and Strengthening Process
The commonly used technologies for three main manu-
facturing steps of the integral impeller and blisk are illus-
trated in Fig. 17, as well as the possible defects of each
Machining the Integral Impeller and Blisk of Aero-Engines 537

Manual finishing Shot peening

Strengthening effect
Vibratory/drag finishing Laser shot peening
generated by impaction
Abrasive flow mchining Ultrasonic shot peening
and extrusion of abrasive
Belt grinding
Precision casting CNC polishing Strengthening process
Precision forging
Defects:
Electrochemical machining Finishing process Improvement of surface roughness
NC milling
Defects: Crimped edge
Tensile residual stress Difficulties in strengthening of blade root
Forming process
Micro-crack
Defects: Micro-hardness
Recast or corrosion layer
Tool marks
High surface roughness
Tensile residual stress

Structural features:thin blade , free-form and screwy blade profiles, little gap, large size range.
Integral impeller,
Material features: titanium alloy, nickel base alloy.
blisk and bling
Target quality: surface-shape error is less than 0.05 mm, surface roughness value is 0.25-0.4 μm,
in areo-engine
shape of leading and trailing edge are ellipse.

Fig. 17 Processing technologies and their defects in the manufacturing of integral impeller and blisk

process. After the forming process, finishing and Table 2 Strengthening effects of SP and vibropeening on blisk made
strengthening processes are indispensable to improve the of IN718 [80]
blade surface integrity further. For a better blade surface Processing Surface roughness Thickness of affected
integrity, the combined effects of the finishing and methods Ra/lm layer dmax/mm
strengthening process of the blade should be considered:
SP 0.43 0.08
(1) If strengthening is performed prior to finishing, the
Vibropeening (soft 0.21 0.15
material of the strengthened layer will be slightly
media)
removed, and the fatigue strength of blades is
weakened. Vibropeening (hard 0.15 0.15
(2) If finishing is performed prior to strengthening, the media)
compressive residual stress and hardness of the Notes: Soft media: media hardness slightly below workpiece hardness
finished blades are improved further, while the Hard media: media hardness significantly higher than workpiece
surface quality may be deteriorated. hardness

More attention should be paid to reconcile the combined

effects of both processes. As can be observed in Fig. 17, 0.15
owing to the impact or scratch of abrasive, vibratory/drag 0
finishing and abrasive flow machining not only improve the
surface quality but also enhance the workpiece surface. -0.15
res /MPa

Therefore, integration technologies can improve the blade

-0.30
surface integrity in one step, and many attempts were made
Residual stress

to this end. -0.45

At Rolls-Royce Ltd, vibropeening was developed by
-0.60
combining vibratory finishing and SP. In the vibropeening
process, the blade surface roughness is improved with little -0.75 Untreated
material removal; compressive residual stress is introduced SP
-0.90 Vibropeening (soft media)
by the impact of shot vibration. A set of experiments was Vibropeening (hard media)
conducted to illustrate the finishing and strengthening -1.05
0 50 100 150 200 250
effects of vibropeening on a blisk made of IN718. The Distance from the surface d/ m
surface roughness and residual stress of the blade surface
are summarized in Table 2 and shown in Fig. 18. Fig. 18 Residual stress comparison of SP vs. vibropeening on IN718
HPC blisk aerofoils [80]

123
538
Compared with SP, vibropeening yielded a deeper
strengthened layer and lower surface roughness [80].
Another attempt was made based on AFM. In Kenda’s
studies, the AFM process was used to finish a workpiece
consisting of tool steel A1S1D2.The workpiece was pre-
processed by the electrical discharge machining (EDM)
process. The distributions of residual stresses under dif-
ferent extrusion pressures are shown in Fig. 19. After the
EDM process, the amplitude of tensile residual stress
reached approximate 550 MPa, and the thickness of the
affected layer was approximately 10 lm. After the AFM
process, compressive residual stress was induced, and its
amplitude exceeded 200 MPa and 350 MPa for extrusion
pressures of 3.5 MPa and 6.0 MPa, respectively. The final
surface roughness Ra reduced from 1.67 lm to
0.23–0.47 lm. However, the thickness of the affected layer
remained unchanged (approximate 10 lm) after all exper-
iments [81]. Scratching due to the abrasives was considered
the main reason for the introduction of compressive
residual stress [82].
The uniformity of the blade surface finish and
strengthening effects of AFM illustrated above cannot meet
600
EDM-ed sample
res /MPa
AFM-ed 3.5 MPa sample
400
AFM-ed 6.0 MPa sample
200
Residual stress
0 Experiments were conducted to study the effects of
-200
-400
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Distance from the surface d/ m
Fig. 19 Distributions of residual stresses on and beneath the surface
treated with different processes [81]
Fig. 20 Abrasive media and
RAFM machine
123
Y. Fu et al.
the practical requirements of the integral impeller and
blisk. In Dalian University of Technology, RAFM with
back-pressure was proposed, and some attempts were made
to improve the blade surface integrity of the integral
impeller and blisk.
New abrasive media were developed, as shown in
Fig. 20(a). The concentration, viscosity, and type of abra-
sive can be changed to meet different working conditions.
In addition, an RAFM machine was manufactured, as
shown in Fig. 20(b). There are two novel functions in this
RAFM machine: back-pressure and rotation of fixture, as
shown in Fig. 21.
In Fig. 21, a pressure called back-pressure is added to
resist the extrusion pressure, and it makes the adjustment of
the pressure and velocity of abrasive media in the channel
easier. The fixture in RAFM rotates, and the rotation can
result in an obvious difference in surface finish. In the
AFM process, the abrasive has the following velocity
components: axial velocity (va) and radial velocity (vr). In
the RAFM process, the abrasive experiences another
velocity component: tangential velocity (vt), as shown in
Fig. 22(a).The traces of abrasive in RAFM are obviously
different from those in AFM, an Fig. 22(b) illustrates the
traces of abrasive on the blade surface in both processes.
With appropriate rotational speed, active abrasives flow
across the blade surface more smoothly; in contrast, they
flow to the hub of the blisk in AFM. Further, in RAFM, the
lengths of the paths are increased in the same traverse time,
and the finishing efficiency and quality may be improved.
process parameters on the roughness of a straight blade
surface [83, 84]. The experimental fixture is shown in
Fig. 23, and the parameters and results are summarized in
70 Table 3. The results show that the material is quickly
removed in the first several cycles, and surface roughness
decreases nonlinearly with the increase in processing time.
The final surface roughness Ra|final increases with the
Machining the Integral Impeller and Blisk of Aero-Engines 539

Extrusion pressure Table 3 Experimental parameters and results

Abrasive Internal impeller
Rotation Ra|initial/lm T/min D/lm P/MPa Ra|final/lm
Fixture Fixture
speed
6.32 5 80 10 4.696
1.37 5 80 10 1.145
6.32 30 350 10 2.012
1.37 30 350 10 1.104
Back pressure 6.32 30 350 5 1.204
1.37 30 350 5 0.772
Fig. 21 Schematic diagram of finishing process of integral impeller
using RAFM

0.6 0.6
vr 45 steel 45 steel
Cooper Cooper
vr 0.5 Aluminum 0.5 Aluminum
Flow direction

Surface roughness Ra/ m

Surface roughness Ra/ m
vt
0.4 0.4

va vF 0.3 0.3

va vF vRF 0.2 0.2

AFM RAFM
0.1 0.1
(a) Velocity of abrasive
0 0
0 600 0 600
Path Path Number of cycles N Number of cycles N
(a) High initial surface roughness (b) Low initial surface roughness
vt
Fig. 24 Surface roughness of straight blades with different values of
Blade

va
Blade

va initial surface roughness

vRF
Experiments were conducted to reveal the effect of
hardness of materials on the surface roughness. Straight
blades consisting of 45 steel, copper, and aluminum were
AFM RAFM selected as experimental subjects. The experimental results
(b) Traces of abrasive on blade surface are shown in Fig. 24. After 600 cycles, the surface
roughness of 45 steel is lower compared to those of copper
Fig. 22 Velocity and paths of abrasive in AFM and RAFM
and aluminum. In the RAFM process, abrasives scratch the
soft material deeper regardless of its initial surface
roughness.
With the appropriate process parameters, a titanium
alloy integral impeller and aluminum alloy blisk were
finished using RAFM. Figs. 25(a)-(b) exhibits the finished
integral impeller and blisk. The milling marks on blade
surfaces were removed, and the final surface roughness Ra
is approximately 0.2–0.4 lm. In addition, abrasive media
can be easily removed after the finishing process, as shown
in Fig. 25(c).
The uneven material removal of the blade surface of the
integral impeller and blisk was observed in Fig. 25. This
uneven material removal is undesired in practical appli-
Fig. 23 Straight blade and its fixture in RAFM experiment cations and may lead to uneven surface integrity. Based on
numerical simulations, the flow behavior of abrasive media
increase of extrusion pressure P, and the effect of abrasive in the restricted channel, specifically the high gradient of
particle size D on the final surface roughness is related to the first normal stress difference, is the probable factor that
the initial surface roughness Ra|initial. causes the uneven material removal [85]. An effective way

123
540 Y. Fu et al.

Fig. 25 Integral impeller and

blisk finished using RAFM

to control the flow behavior of abrasive media is to change
the fixture. In the RAFM process, the flow of abrasive
media in the channels is restrained by the blade surface,
and the dynamic characteristics of abrasive media are not
the same everywhere owing to the different sizes between
two adjacent blades. Therefore, the reverse design of the
fixture was proposed to control the behavior abrasive
media quantitatively.
Figure 26 shows a schematic diagram of the reverse
design of the fixture. The fixture contains two primary
portions: guide blocks and fixture body. Guide blocks are
used to reduce the effect of direct impact of abrasive media
on workpiece edges and to make abrasive media flow into
the channel more smoothly. With the help of guide blocks,
overgrinding near blade edges will be improved. The main
Extrusion pressure: P
considerations for the design of guide blocks are the
improvement of the contraction coefficient at the channel
inlet and formation of a smooth junction between the guide
blocks and workpiece.
The profile of the fixture body is the key factor that can
affect the distribution of dynamic characteristics of abra-
sive media along the flow direction. The reverse design of
the fixture body is based on simulations and experiments
that can be expounded as follows:
(1) Dynamic characteristics of abrasive media obtained
based on numerical simulations with different fixture
body profiles, process parameters, abrasive media,
etc.
(2) Establishment of a theoretical model of pressure
transfer in a channel based on Maxwell and Kelvin
models.
(3) Distribution of material removal (MR) along the flow

Fixture body
direction.
Flow direction (4) Establishment of material removal model.
O
X δ
Channel
Following the four main processing steps, the channel
Y
width, d, may be expressed as d ¼ K f ðQ; v; x; g; T; MRÞ,
Workpiece
where K, Q, v, MR, x, g, and T are a proportionality
x Guide
Guide block block coefficient, the flow rate, the wetted perimeter, the material
Pressure: P1 removal, the distance from the control volume to the
channel inlet, the dynamic viscosity, and the temperature of
Kelvin model abrasive media, respectively.
By combining the above mathematical model and the
Maxwell model initial blade surface, the reverse design of the fixture can be
realized. However, the reverse design is merely an idea at
Equation about pressure this point, and there is much work to be done.
transfer P P1

Workpiece Simulations
5 Summary and Forecast
Experiments
Control volume
Active abrasive Inactive abrasive δ =K f (Q, χ, x, η, T ) To improve the reliability and thrust-to-weight ratio of
Carrier
Reverse design of fixture
aero-engines, an integral impeller and a blisk with complex
geometry and consisting of difficult-to-cut materials are
Fig. 26 Schematic diagram of reverse design of fixture

123
Machining the Integral Impeller and Blisk of Aero-Engines
increasingly used in the aerospace industry. In the present
paper, firstly, the effects of blade surface integrity on the
service performance of the integral impeller and blisk are
illustrated. Secondly, a review of the development and
applications of finishing and strengthening processes of the
integral impeller and blisk are presented. Finally, integra-
tion technologies are introduced, and results of research on
the RAFM process in Dalian University of Technology are
shown.
Based on this assessment of the current state of finishing
and strengthening processes for the integral impeller and
blisk, some observations concerning past work and future
needs are offered:
(1) More attention to machining reachability and uni-
formity of blade surface finish will be important to
qualify blades.
(2) Reasonable process steps to finish and strengthen
blade surfaces should be considered: the choice of
technology for each step and interactions of both
steps are of considerable industrial importance.
(3) CNC milling and LSP have brought many improve-
ments in the finishing and strengthening process, and
may become the most popular machining procedure.
(4) Integration technology can contribute to the
improvement of process efficiency, while more work
is needed to improve blade surface integrity with the
emerging integrated technology.
(5) RAFM with back-pressure was proposed, and appro-
priate process parameters, new abrasive media with
high-temperature stability, and reverse design of the
fixture are worth studying to improve the uniformity
of surface finishing and strengthening effects.
The above research results can provide theoretical and
technological foundations for the finishing and strength-
ening processes of high-performance parts in other realms.
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Youzhi Fu, born in 1988, is currently a PhD candidate at Dalian
University of Technology, China. He received his master degree from
Zhejiang University of Technology, China, in 2012. His research
interests include precision and ultra-precision machining. E-mail:
fuyouzhi120@163.com
Hang Gao, born in 1962, is currently a professor at Dalian University
of Technology, China. He received his PhD degree from Northeastern
University, China, in 1992. His research interests include precision
and ultra-precision machining. Tel: ?86-411-84706138; E-mail:
gaohang@dlut.edu.cn
Xuanping Wang, born in 1979, is currently a lecturer at Dalian
University of Technology, China. He received his PhD degree from
Dalian University of Technology, China, in 2012. His main research
interests include solid mechanics, viscoelastic flow, and finite element
methods. E-mail: xpwang@dlut.edu.cn
Dongming Guo, born in 1959, is currently a professor at Dalian
University of Technology, China. He received his PhD degree from
Dalian University of Technology, China, in 1992. His main research
interests include non-traditional machining and precision/ultra-preci-
sion machining technology. Tel: ?86-411-84708011; E-mail:
guodm@dlut.edu.cn
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