APTITUD COMUNICATIVA (INGLÉS)

1. PAST SIMPLE
7 SIMPLE PAST

There are several tenses for speaking about the past in English, but the past simple is the most commonly used. It is used for actions
completed in the past. In the past tense there are both regular verbs and irregular verbs.

Grammatical Rules
Form
To form the past simple of regular verbs we add the ending «-ed» to the verb. The form is the same for all persons (I, you, he, she, it, we,
they).
Examples:
· want = wanted
· learn = learned
· stay = stayed
· walk = walked
· show = showed

Exceptions:
1. For verbs that end in «e», we only need to add «-d»:
Examples:
· change = changed
· believe = believed
2. If the verb ends in a short vowel plus a consonant (except «y» o «w»), we double the final consonant:
Examples:
· stop = stopped
· commit = committed
3. When the verb ends in a consonant and «y», the «y» becomes an «i»:
Examples:
· study = studied
· try = tried
Note: There are many irregular verbs in English and unfortunately there are no fixed rules for forming them.

Verb Past simple

was (I, he, she, it)
be
were (you, we, they)
do did
have had
Structure
1. Affirmative Sentences
Subject + principal verb…
Examples:
· She was a doctor.
· The keys were in the drawer.
· I wanted to dance.
· They learned English.
· We believed him.
· I bought a blue car.

2. Negative Sentences
To be:
Subject + «to be» + «not»…
Examples:
· She wasn’t a doctor.
· The keys weren’t in the drawer.

All other verbs:

Subject + auxiliary verb (to do) + «not» + principal verb (in infinitive)…

Examples:
· I didn’t want to dance.
· They didn’t learn English.
· We didn’t believe him.
· I didn’t buy a blue car.

Note: As in the present simple, in negative sentences in the past simple the auxiliary verb is conjugated («did») and the principal verb
remains in the infinitive.

3. Interrogative Sentences
To be:
«To be» + subject…?
Examples:
· Was she a doctor?
· Were the keys in the drawer?

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 APTITUD COMUNICATIVA (INGLÉS)

All other verbs:

Auxiliary verb (to do) + subject + principal verb…?
Examples:
· Did you want to dance?
· Did they learn English?
· Did you believe him?
· Did you buy a blue car?
Note: As with negative sentences, the auxiliary verb is conjugated («did») and the principal verb remains in the infinitive.

Uses
1. The past simple is used to talk about a specific action or event that began and ended in the past. It is generally used with
adverbs of time such as «last year», «yesterday», «last night»…
Examples:
· Tom stayed at home last night.
· Kate worked last Saturday.
· I didn’t go to the party yesterday.
· Did they walk to school this morning?

2. The past simple is used to talk about a series of actions that occurred in the past.

Examples:
· I received the good news and immediately called my
husband.
· He studied for an hour in the morning, worked all afternoon
and didn’t return home until 10 at night.

3. We also use the past simple for repeated actions or habits in the past.
Examples:
· We always traveled to Cancun for vacation when we
were young.
· He walked 5 kilometers every day to work.

4. The past simple is also used for narrations or actions that occurred over a long period of time in the past.
Examples:
· I worked for many years in a museum.
· She didn’t eat meat for years.

5. We use the past simple to speak about facts or things in the past in general.
Examples:
· The Aztec lived in Mexico.
· I played the guitar when I was a child.

IRREGULAR VERBS
SPANISH PRESENT PAST SPANISH PRESENT PAST SPANISH PRESENT PAST
Be Was,were Become Became Say Said
Read Read Build Built Swim Swam
Write Wrote Can Could Send Sent
Get Got Catch Caught Find Found
Get up Got up Cost Cost Bring Brought
Run Ran Cut Cut Give Gave
Sleep Slept drive Drove Tell Told
Speak Spoke Fight Fought Feel Felt
Come Came Forget Forgot Grow Grew
Go Went Hear Heard Break Broke
Think Thought Pay Paid Meet met
Understand understood Ride Rode lose Lost
Do / Does Did See Saw Leave Left
make Made Sell Sold Choose Chose
Know Knew lend lent Fall Fell
Eat Ate Sing Sang Win Won
Drink Drank Sit Sat Draw Drew
Take Took Stand Stood Wear Wore
Have Had Steal Stole Buy Bought
Begin Began Wake up Woke up fly flew

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4 Simple Past
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8
The past continuous tense is used for actions that occurred at a
specific time in the past. Like the present continuous, it is formed
PAST CONTINUOUS

Examples:
using the verb «to be» as well as the gerund. - Jose called while I was watching the news.
- He was walking to work when he fell.
Grammatical Rules - Was it raining when you left?
Form
To form the past continuous we use the auxiliary verb «to be» as
well as the gerund (infinitive + «-ing») of the verb. The auxiliary 2. We use the past continuous to talk about actions or events
verb «to be» is in the past simple tense, but keep in mind that «to that happened at a specific time in the past.
be» is an irregular verb.
Examples:
- Paula wasn’t living in Spain in 2005.
Auxiliary
Subject Gerund - We were still working at 10 o’clock last night.
(to be)
3. The past continuous is used for two actions that were occurring
talking, eating, simultaneously in the past.
I, he,
was learning, doing,
she, it
going… Examples:
- My son was reading while I was cooking.
talking, eating,
you, we, - They were talking very loudly while we were trying to
were learning, doing,
they watch the movie.
going…
Note: As we have seen, there are some verbs which may not be
1. AFFIRMATIVE SENTENCES used in the continuous tenses.
Subject + auxiliary verb (to be) + gerund.
Examples:
- I was talking.
- He was eating.
- They were learning.

2. NEGATIVE SENTENCES
Subject + auxiliary verb (to be) + «not» + gerund.

Examples:
- I was not [wasn’t] talking.
- He was not [wasn’t] eating.
- They were not [weren’t] learning.

3. INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES
Auxiliary verb (to be) + subject + gerund?

Examples:
- Were you talking?
- Was he eating?
- Were they learning?

Uses
1. The past continuous is used for an action or event that
occurred over a long period of time in the past and that
was interrupted. The action or event that was interrupted
is in the past continuous while the action that caused the
interruption is in the past simple.

«When» and «while» signal the use of the past simple and
past continuous. In general, we use the past simple directly
after «when» and the past continuous after «while».

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6 Present Continuous
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9
As we have seen, adjectives describe qualities of nouns. Some of
COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE

these qualities can vary in degree or intensity (gradable adjectives).

When we want to make comparisons contrasting qualities or attributes
Examples:
- Juan is the fastest.
- Angela’s room is the cleanest.
of a noun, we do so by means of an adjective in one of three grades. - I am the tallest.
Gradable adjectives can vary in degree or intensity and therefore - New York is the biggest city in the United States.
can have comparative and superlative forms. See below for rules on
how to form the comparative and superlative forms. Note: If the adjective is possessive, we don’t use «the». In
addition, we don’t use «the» when comparing something with
The positive grade itself.

The positive grade, which we saw previously, is the quality in the Examples:
simplest grade. - His smartest student is Lisa.
fast, hard, smart, pretty, clean, large, small, old, easy… - New York is coldest in January.
Examples:
Form
- Juan runs fast. Below are the rules for forming the comparative and superlative
- Angela’s room is clean. forms of gradable adjectives.
- I am tall.
- New York is big. 1. For one syllable adjectives:

The Comparative Grade Comparative Superlative

add: “-er” add: “-est”
When making comparisons, we can highlight the superiority, inferiority
or equality of one quality or another. The structure of each of these faster fastest
grades of comparison is different.
2. For one syllable adjectives that end in «-e»:
1. Comparisons of superiority. In comparisons of superiority,
the adjective, which is in the comparative form (see below), is Comparative Superlative
followed by «than».
add: “-r” add: “-st”
Examples: nicer nicest
- Juan runs faster than Mark. 3. For one syllable adjectives that end in «consonant + vowel +
- Angela’s room is cleaner than Sue’s. consonant»:
- I am taller than Beth.
- New York is bigger than Los Angeles. Comparative Superlative
2. Comparisons of inferiority. To form this type of comparison
add: consonant + add: consonant +
we can use the conjunctions «not as…as» or «less…than». In “-er” “-est”
both cases, the adjective is in the positive grade. hotter hottest
Examples:
4. For two syllable adjectives that end in «-y»:
- Mark is not as fast as Juan.
- Sue’s room is less clean than Angela’s.
- Beth is notas tall as me. Comparative Superlative
- Los Angeles is not as big as New York.
substitute “y” for:“- substitute “y” for:
3. Comparisons of equality. With the adjective in the positive ier” “-iest”
grade, we use the conjunction «as…as» to form comparisons funnier funniest
of equality.

Examples: 5. For adjectives of two syllables or more:

- Mark is as fast as Juan.
- Sue’s room is as clean as Angela’s. Comparative Superlative
- Beth is as tall as I am.
- Los Angeles is as big as New York.
add: “more”/ add: “the most”/ “the
“less” least”:
Note: We can modify a comparison using a quantifier such as more beautiful the most beautiful
«much», «a lot», «a little», etc.
less beautiful the least beautiful
Examples:
- Juan is a lot faster than Mark.
6. Irregular adjectives:
- I am a little taller than Beth.

The Superlative Grade Adjetive Comparative Superlative

The superlative grade denotes a quality at its highest degree and good better best
is formed using the article «the» in front of the superlative form of bad worse worst
the adjective (see below).
far further furthest

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8 Comparative and Superlative

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Future Simple
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There are two main ways to express the future in English. They are
sometimes interchangeable, but they often have different meanings.
FUTURE TIME "WILL" AND "BE GOING TO"

2. Negative Sentences
Subject + auxiliary verb (to be) + «not» + «going to» +
principal verb…

Future: "Will" Examples:

- I’m not going to call you tonight.
Structure - She isn’t going to arrive late.
- They aren’t going to be happy to see you.
Note: There is a short form for the modal verb «will» in both the
affirmative and negative. Uses
Both «will» and «to be going to» are used for expressing the
future, but the use of one over the other implies something about the
Short probability of the action occurring in the future. The aspect that
Affirm Negative Short Form
Form differentiates «to be going to» with «will» is in the sense of
I won’t «planning». In general, «to be going to» is used for concrete
I will I’ll I will not
I’ll not plans, when we are quite certain that something is going to happen.
you you will You won’t
you’ll
will not you’ll not 1. We use «will» with voluntary actions.
he he won’t
he’ll he will not
will he’ll not Examples:
she I she will she won’t
she’ll
will not she’ll not - Will you help me move?
it won’t - They will clean their rooms.
it will it’ll it will not
it’ll not - She won’t work with Paul.
we we will we won’t
we’ll
will not we’ll not 2. «Will» is used to express a promise.
they they will they won’t
they’ll
will not they’ll not Examples:

- When I am president, I will lower taxes.

1. Affirmative Sentences - He promises he will call when he arrives.
Subject + «will» + principal verb…
3. "To be going to" is used for plans; it indicates the intention to
do something.
Examples:
- I will [I’ll] call you tonight.
- She will [She’ll] arrive late. Examples:
- They will [They’ll] be happy to see you.
- We are going to have a party tonight.
2. Negative Sentences - Richard is going to take an English class.
- Are Peter and David going to play football later?
Subject + «will» + «not» + principal verb…
4. Either «will» or «to be going to» can be used for
Examples: predictions because the speaker has no control over the future.
- I will not [won’t] call you tonight.
- She will not [won’t] arrive late. Examples:
- They will not [won’t] be happy to see you.
- It will be a great party. / It is going to be a great party.
3. Interrogative Sentences - It won’t rain. / It isn’t going to rain.

«Will» + subject + principal verb…

Note: There are some situations in which we use the present
continuous or the present simple to express actions in the future.
Examples:
- Will you call me tonight?
- Will she arrive late? 1. The present continuous can be used for actions in the near
- Will they be happy to see you? future or actions that are certain.

Future: "Going to" Examples:

Structure - Sarah is arriving tonight.

- I am going to the doctor this afternoon.
1. Affirmative Sentences
Subject + auxiliary verb (to be) + «going to» + principal 2. We use the present simple for events scheduled in the
verb… future.

Examples: Examples:
- I am going to call you tonight.
- She is going to arrive late. - The party starts at 9pm.
- They are going to be happy to see you. - The train leaves at 10am.

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10 Future Time "Will" and "Be Going To"

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Future Time "Will" and "Be Going To" 11

APTITUD COMUNICATIVA (INGLÉS)

1. MODAL VERBS
11 "MODAL VERBS"

Note: «Could» is used in conditional sentences.

Modal verbs are auxiliary verbs that, unlike the auxiliary verbs May
«be», «do» y «have», cannot function as principal verbs. Meaning: used to indicate possibilities in the future
Modal verbs express modality. They can express ability, possibility,
necessity, probability, obligation or other conditions. They are Examples:
auxiliary verbs used for forming the future and conditional. · I would bring an umbrella, it may rain later.
Unlike some other languages, there are no verb tenses in English · It may be better to finish this now, rather than wait until
that express possibility or uncertainty and therefore we use tomorrow.
modal verbs to express these ideas.
As complementary verbs, modal verbs cannot function without "May" is also used to give permission or instructions.
other verbs. The principal verb is always found after the modal
verb and in the base form. Modal verbs are not conjugated and Examples:
have no tenses. · You may leave if you like.
· You may use your cell phones now.
The modal verbs are:
· can In interrogative sentences, «may» is the most polite way to ask
· could permission (as opposed to «can» or «could»).
· may
· might Examples:
· will · May I have a glass of water?
· shall · May I leave now?
· should
· ought to Might
· must/have to Meaning: synonym of «may», indicates possibilities in the
· would present or future

USES Examples:
Can · I would bring an umbrella, it might rain later.
Meaning: to be able to; indicates ability or possibility · It might be better to finish this now, rather than wait until
tomorrow.
Examples:
· I can speak five languages. "Might" can also be used like «may» to ask permission, but this
· We can work late tonight if you need us. is much more common in British English than in American English.
· Bill and Tom can’t help you.
· The restaurant can be expensive if you drink a lot of wine. Will
· It can be dangerous to drive if you are tired. Meaning: used to express willingness or consent
As we will see in later lessons, «will» is used to form the future
In interrogative sentences, we use «can» to ask permission tense.
(informally) or to ask about possibilities. As we will see in later lessons, «will» is used to form the future
tense.
Examples:
· Can I have a glass of water? Examples:
· Can you help me? · I will help you.
· Can they work late tonight? · We will learn English.

Could «Will» is used in interrogative sentence to ask for information,

Meaning: past tense of «can», indicates ability or possibility in a favor or opinion.
the past
Examples:
Examples: · Will they find a cure for cancer?
· Joe could speak Spanish when he was young. · Will you help me move?
· I couldn’t sleep last night. · Will he go to Paris by car or train?
· It could have been worse.
· Could you play an instrument when you were a child? Shall
Meaning: used, like «will», to express the future
"Could" is also used for possibilities in the future. The use of «shall» is much more common in British English and
is generally considered more polite.
Examples:
· You could pass the test if you studied. Examples:
· I think it could rain later. · Chris shall be happy to see you.
· I’ll take the 3 o’clock train.
As with «can», in interrogative sentences «could» is used to
ask permission or to ask about possibilities, but in a more formal Note: The short forms of «will» y «shall» are the same.
sense. Therefore, «I’ll» in the above example can mean either «I will»
or «I shall».
Examples: We also use «shall» for offers or to make suggestions or to ask
· Could you help me? about opinions or preferences.
· Could I be wrong?

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Examples: Examples:
· Shall l we meet at 10pm? · You must [have to] read this book, it’s fantastic.
· Shall we go to the movies or a museum? · You must [have to] brush your teeth two times a day.
Should · We must [have to] leave now or we will be late.
Meaning: indicates a recommendation or obligation or reflects · You must not drink and drive.
an opinion about what is right or correct · When must we meet you?

Examples:
We also use «must» for probability or assumptions.
· I should call my parents more often.
· You shouldn’t work so hard.
· They should practice more if they want to win the Examples:
championship. · John’s not here. He must be sick because he never misses
class.
"Should" is used in interrogative sentences to ask if there is an · It must be difficult to learn a new language as an adult.
obligation or to ask for a recommendation.
"Must" can also be used in rhetorical questions.
Examples:
· Should we leave a tip? Examples:
· Should I have the steak or the chicken? · Must you always be late?
· Where should they meet you? · Must she talk so much?

Ought to
Would
Meaning: synonym of "should"
Meaning: past tense of «will»; indicates preference, desire, or
Examples: intention
· She ought to quit smoking.
· I ought to call my parents more often. Examples:
· They ought to work less. · She would like to go to New York someday.
· I would like a beer and my wife would like a glass of wine
Must please.
«Must» indicates an obligation, prohibition (when in the · Would you like some coffee?
negative) or necessity; it is a synonym of "have to"

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14 Present Continuous
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GRAMMATICALRULES
12
PRESENT PERFECT 2.
PRESENT PERFECT

We use the present perfect to express change over time.

Examples:
- I have become more timid in my old age.
FORM - Their English has improved a lot this year.
Short Past - He has learned to be more patient.
Subject Auxiliary
Form Participle
I, you,
I’ve,
talked, 3. The present perfect is used for accomplishments.
you’ve,
we, have learned,
we’ve,
they traveled… Examples:
they’ve
he’s, talked, - Our football team has won the championship three times.
he, she,
has she’s, learned,
it - Dan has finished writing his first novel.
it’s traveled…
- Scientists have succeeded in curing many illnesses.

Verb Past Simple Past Participle

4. We use the present perfect for actions or events that
be was/were been
have not yet happened. The use of the present perfect in these
do did done cases indicates that we are still expecting the event or action to
go went gone occur. Therefore, we frequently use the adverbs »yet» y «still»
make made made with the present perfect.
see saw seen
Examples:
STRUCTURE - The plane hasn’t arrived yet.
1. Affirmative Sentences - Our team still hasn’t won a championship.
Subject + auxiliary verb (to have) + past participle… - You haven’t finished your homework yet?
Examples:
- I have [I’ve] talked to Peter.
- She has [She’s] gone to work. 5. The present perfect is used to discuss actions or events
- We have [We’ve] been to London. that occurred at various times in the past. The use of the
- They have [They’ve] learned English. present perfect in these cases indicates that further actions or
events are possible in the future.
2. Negative Sentences
Subject + auxiliary verb (to have) + «not» + past participle… Examples:
Examples: - We have spoken several times, but we still can’t reach an
- I haven’t talked to Peter. agreement.
- She hasn’t gone to work. - Our team has played 4 games so far this year.
- We haven’t been to London. - I love New York! I have been there 5 times already and I
- They haven’t learned English. can’t wait to go back.

3. Interrogative Sentences 6. As we will see, in general we use the present perfect

Auxiliary verb (to have) + subject + past participle…? continuous for situations that began in the past and
Examples: continue into the present. However, as we have learned, there
- Have you talked to Peter? are some verbs which we cannot use in the continuous tenses.
- Has she gone to work? In these cases, we use the present perfect simple.
- Have you been to London?
- Have they learned English? Examples:
Uses - How long has Michael been in Barcelona?
The present perfect is used for actions or events that occurred at an - I have loved you since the day I met you.
unspecified time before the present. The specific time is not important
and therefore we generally do not use specific time expressions
(«this morning», «yesterday», «last year»…) with the present
perfect. On the other hand, we can use non specific time
expressions with the present perfect («never», «ever», «many
times», «for», «since», «already», «yet»…). This concept of
nonspecific time is quite difficult to understand and so below you will
find further explanation of the particular uses of the present perfect.

1. The present perfect is used to describe an experience. It

is not used for specific actions.
Examples:
- I have never flown in a plane.
- He has worked in many different museums.
- We have been to Rio de Janeiro.

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16 Present Perfect
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PAST PERFECT 3.
PAST PERFECT

Interrogative Sentences
The past perfect is used for actions or events that happened in the «Had» + subject + past participle…?
past before another action or event in the past.
Examples:
GRAMMATICALRULES - How did you know where the Mona Lisa was? Had you
FORM visited the Louvre before?
Like the present perfect, the past perfect is formed using the auxiliary - Had they studied English before they went to London?
verb «to have» (in the past simple form) as well as the past participle. - Had Henry worked as an accountant for long before he
changed careers?
Subject Auxiliar Short Form
Past USES
Participle 1. We use the past perfect to refer to an event that began in
I’d, you’d, the past and before another action or event in the past.
I, you, he, studied,
he’d, she’d, The action or event that that happened first is in the past perfect
she, it, we, had visited,
it’d, we’d, and the one that follows in the past simple.
they worked…
they’d
Examples:
STRUCTURE - I’d read the book before I saw the movie.
1. Affirmative Sentences - Donna had just left when you called.
Subject + «had» + past participle… - Had you ever flown before the trip to France?
Examples:
- I had [I’d] visited the Louvre before, so I knew where the 2. The past perfect is used for actions or events that
Mona Lisa was.
happened before a specific time in the past.
- They had [They’d] studied English before they went to
Examples:
London.
- I had already woken up when the alarm clock rang at 7am.
- Henry changed careers because he had [he’d] worked as an
accountant for many years and was bored. - He hadn’t been to France before the trip in 2008.

2. Negative Sentences 3. As with the present perfect, we also use the past perfect
Subject + «had» + past participle… simple for situations that began in the past and continued
to a specific point in time in the past, as we cannot use the
Examples: continuous tenses with certain verbs.
- I had not [hadn’t] visited the Louvre before so I didn’t know Examples:
where the Mona Lisa was. - She had only owned one car before she bought her new
- They had not [hadn’t] studied English before they went to BMW.
London. - I’d been depressed for a long time before I changed jobs.
- Henry changed careers even though he had not [hadn’t]
worked as an accountant for long.

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14
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES
CONDITIONALS

The use of the conditional implies that one action in a sentence
depends on the other. The conditionals are used to speak about both
real and imaginary situations. Conditional sentences are also known
as «if clauses».
Keep in mind that there is no conditional verb tense in English as
there is in other languages. Instead, we use the auxiliary verb «would»
to form the conditional.
There are four types of conditional sentences and the use of one
type over the other reflects the probability of the dependent action
happening.
CONDITIONAL TYPES
ZERO CONDITIONAL
speaker here recognizes that they can go to the beach, but they
are not sure if they will.)
- If it doesn’t rain, we should go to the beach. (Meaning: In this
case, the use of «should» expresses the opinion of the speaker.)
- If it doesn’t rain, we can go to the beach. (Meaning: «Can»
here indicates that it is possible to go to the beach, but says
nothing of the probability.)
SECOND CONDITIONAL
The second conditional is used to express an unreal possibility in the
present, such as a wish or dream, or for an action in the future that
is not very probable.
IF Condition Result

The zero conditional is used when the condition and the results are If past simple “would” + infinitive
always true, such as with scientific facts.
Examples:
IF Condition Result
- If I won the lottery, I would travel around the world. / I
present present would travel around the world if I won the lottery.
if - If Rachel had more time, she would learn to play the guitar.
simple simple / Rachel would learn to play the guitar if she had more time.
- Would you be happy if you were to get married? / If you
Examples: were to get married,would you be happy?
- If you heat water to 100° C, it boils. / Water boils if you heat
it to 100° C.
THIRDCONDITIONAL
- If I don’t practice the piano everyday I play poorly. / I play
the piano poorly if Idon’t practice everyday. As opposed to the first and second conditionals, the third conditional
- Does your mom get mad if you don’t call her? / If you don’t is used to speak about a condition in the past that has not occurred.
call your mom,does she get mad?
IF Condition Result
FIRST CONDITIONAL
past “would have” +
We use the first conditional for expressing the future and in cases If
perfect past participle
when the condition is very likely to occur.

IF Condition Result Examples:

future - If I had known then what I know now, I would have done
present things differently. / I would have done things differently if
if simple
simple I had known then what I know now.
(“will”) - Suzanne wouldn’t have had the heart attack if she had
gone on a diet as her doctor recommended. / If Suzanne
Examples: had gone on a diet as her doctor recommended she wouldn’t
- If Bill studies, he will pass the exam. / Bill will pass the have had the heart attack.
exam if he studies. - Would you have liked to go to university if you had been
able to afford it? / If you had been able to afford it, would
- If it doesn’t rain, we will go to the beach. / We will go to
you have liked to go to university?
the beach if it doesn’t rain.
- Will you take the train if you miss the bus? / If you miss the
bus, will you takethe train?

Note: We can use certain modal verbs instead of «will» to change

the probability of the condition or to express an opinion. For more
information, see the lesson on modal verbs.

Examples:
- If it doesn’t rain, we may go to the beach. (Meaning: With the
use of «may», the meaning of this sentence changes. The

18 Conditionals
 APTITUD COMUNICATIVA (INGLÉS)

Conditionals 19
APTITUD COMUNICATIVA (INGLÉS)

20 Conditionals