Lecture 1 of Academic Writing November 2019

Introduction to Academic Writing

During your university career, you will write a variety of assignments. Some will be based on your
beliefs and opinions; others will require you to report on and evaluate existing research. You may
be asked to write any number of business documents, such as proposals, reports, feasibility studies,
strategic planning documents, and even lab reports and other scientific research. You may design
and conduct surveys or perform other data-gathering tasks that must be summarized. You may write
speeches, advertising and marketing copy, and white papers as assignments. You may even write
fiction, such as short stories and poetry. Most certainly during your university career, you will write
research papers and be expected to take essay examinations.
Whatever you write, you will need strategies to help you apply your critical thinking skills to the
writing process. There is no neat crossover between assignments and thinking strategies. In some
cases, these strategies will be clear to you—for example, when you are asked to analyse a problem
and propose a solution. In other cases, the assignment will be expressed more abstractly and call for
a variety of critical thinking and writing strategies.

What Is University Writing?

University courses demand many different kinds of writing that employ a variety of strategies for
different audiences. You may be required to write long essays or short answers in response to
examination questions. You may be asked to keep a journal, write a lab report, and document the
process you use to perform research. You may be called upon to create a design document, write a
business report or plan, and report on the results of research. These are only some of the many types
of writing you may engage in throughout your university career.
University writing, also called academic writing, is assigned to teach you the critical thinking and
writing skills needed to communicate in courses and in the workplace. To acquire and practice these
skills, you are asked to write many different types of assignments under different circumstances.
Sometimes your instructor will assign a topic and define the audience; sometimes you will have to
define and limit the topic and audience yourself. In any case, university writing teaches you about
the series of decisions you must make as you forge the link between your information and your
audience.
For example, you must decide what sources of information you will use, how you will interpret this
information, how you will organize your ideas, and what words and strategies you will use to
explain your ideas. Your university writing experience will teach you about the writing process and
about writing for particular disciplines, such as those in the liberal arts and business management
specializations. University writing offers you the opportunity to learn many different strategies for
approaching writing tasks so that you may communicate how much you know and understand about
a subject to a particular audience, usually your classmates or your instructor.
The expository nature of university writing, with its emphasis on the knowledge you gain in your
university courses and through research, makes such writing different from your previous writing
and perhaps more challenging. Instructors may expect your essays to contain more research, show
more awareness of differing points of view, and even reflect more sophisticated expository
techniques, such as argument and persuasion. The main sources of the content of your university
writing will be assigned textbook readings, library books and articles, your experience, and even
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field studies you might have designed. You will often use the skills you learn in university writing
throughout your career.

A Word about Style, Voice, and Tone

Style, voice, and tone in writing express the attitude of a writer at that moment and in relation to a
particular subject and audience. Students often confuse writing style with some vague sense of
personal style, or personality. But style is a technical term for the effect a writer can create through
attitude, language, and the mechanics of writing. If the writing reflects a consistent choice of
patterns, then it is perceived as coherent and harmonious, the style supporting the content. The
writer’s purpose and style clearly have a cause-and-effect relationship. Because style is distinct for
each discipline, you should discuss with your instructor what is appropriate for your writing
assignments.
Voice and tone reflect your attitude about your subject and your readers. Voice is who the readers
hear talking in your paper, and tone is the way in which you are doing the writing. Voice can be
institutional, or academic—that is, objective and formal. Or voice can be personal—in fact, your
distinct voice. You will need to decide whether you want your tone to be informative or affective—
that is, do you want to inform your readers or to persuade them in some way? Your style and
attitude toward your subject combine to create your voice and tone.
Your goal in university writing is to understand the material of your discipline and be able to
discuss it effectively in writing. Your instructors want facts as well as opinions, and they want to be
able to assess, through your writing, how well you synthesize you’re thinking and learning in the
course. Your goal in most academic writing is to convey facts about a subject, integrate opinions
based on facts, and synthesize what you have learned as you go along. You will discover, however,
that some academic writing is persuasive and that your instructors will expect you to know the
language of persuasion as well.

Kinds of Assignments You Will Write

Most university writing consists of assignments tailored to help you think about the subjects you are
learning, learn about and explore new subjects, discover what your ideas are, and demonstrate what
you have learned. In other words, your assignments are opportunities for you to pose probing
questions that your writing will answer. In learning to pose the questions and answer them, you will
discover how writing serves as a thinking tool.
Many students think of writing as what they produce after they have thought through the
assignment or the question at hand. If they study the material, students usually don't have much
difficulty writing about the content of their courses. Student writing problems most often originate
from misunderstanding the ways in which writing can be used to think through a problem, task, or
question. By understanding that you can use writing to explore and discover ideas for your
assignments, you can generate ideas, discover what you think about your topic, explore approaches
to it, and demonstrate critical thinking about it, all of which constitute what your teacher hopes to
accomplish in assigning writing tasks.
Assignments usually embody certain learning objectives called cognitive objectives. Table 1 shows
cognitive objectives in relation to the types of assignments you may receive. Just knowing which
learning objective is intended for an assignment can steer you in the right direction.

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Table 1
Assignment Expectations and Cognitive Objectives

Assignment uses the following When your teacher expects you to Cognitive
directive wording: do the following: objective

Define, label, list, name, repeat, order, Memorize, recall, or present Knowledge
arrange, memorize information recall

Describe, indicate, restate, explain, Interpret information in your own

Comprehension
review, summarize, classify words

Apply, illustrate, prepare, solve, use,

Apply knowledge to new situations Application
sketch, operate, practice, calculate

Analyse, categorize, compare, test, Break down knowledge into parts

Analysis
distinguish, examine, contrast and show relationships among them

Bring together parts of knowledge to

Arrange, compose, formulate, organize,
form a whole; build relationships for Synthesis
plan, assemble, construct
new situations

Make judgments based on criteria;

Appraise, evaluate, conclude, judge,
support or confirm preferences; be Evaluation
predict, compare, score
persuasive

Support by
Use supporting examples, cite passages Quote or paraphrase to support what
allusion/
from the text, paraphrase, summarize you have written; be persuasive
example

Provide corroborating evidence,

Use outside research to support your Support by
reference other works, research, cite
thesis or hypothesis; be persuasive research
examples from case studies

In the first three levels of cognitive objectives, you are expected to demonstrate your knowledge
and mastery of course information. You show that you remember facts and can recall them
(knowledge recall), understand the information and can interpret and present it in your own words
(comprehension), and apply what you are learning to new situations (application). The remaining
cognitive objectives—analysis, synthesis, and evaluation—are more complex and represent the
kinds of learning objectives fostered in the university experience. The last two mentioned in the
table—supporting by allusion or example and supporting by research—describe using evidence to
explain or strengthen your arguments.

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Why So Much Emphasis on Writing?

In your studies in business and economics disciplines, you will do substantial amounts of writing in
assignment work. Writing is a significant part of assessment and develops your ability to
communicate clearly and appropriately in a range of settings. This is an important skill that meets
the university and faculty’s learning aims, and is needed for the workplace.
In your writing, you must demonstrate your ability to integrate ideas and information and think
critically about the topic or issue. This means much more than just retelling or describing
information. Integrating ideas and information means appreciating that there is a range of views on
any topic, and carefully considering these views as you form your own response to a task. Being
analytical means that you examine the details of the topic, and the information that you read, rather
than simply accepting the information. Critical thinking means, for example, that you evaluate the
writer’s points and evidence, and judge the value of material you read for the purposes of your
assignment task. You do this by assessing the material or data’s contribution to your point of view
on the issue. For example, in everyday life, people have different opinions for different reasons
about a film; you also have an opinion about the film based on your own reasons; and you judge
other people’s reasons.
Similarly, regarding an academic topic, each writer will have a position (a position is an opinion)
plus reasons and evidence supporting their position. As you read you must work out your own
position among all these others and collect supporting evidence. Which ideas and data do you think
are valuable, or not, and why?
Writing is an active thinking process, a way to develop new knowledge for yourself. Your teachers
will deliberately create various occasions for learning new subject matter through writing. For
example, you may be asked to keep a journal, write a financial analysis, present a formal argument,
create a mission statement, perform a strategic analysis, or even write your own case study. As you
write about your subject—describing it from as many angles as you can think of, comparing it with
other knowledge you have, tracing its history, and discovering its relationships to other subject
matter—you are helping your mind to work. As you write, you are recording how your mind works
and stimulating your thoughts and ideas. The written record of your thinking becomes part of your
new knowledge.
In addition to creating new knowledge, writing can help you explore and discover problem-solving
strategies. As you progress in your academic specialization, you will be expected to address more
complex problems associated with learning new subject matter. For example, you might be asked to
address the issue of whether global warming is actually occurring. You could be asked to critically
evaluate the unemployment statistics posted by the Bureau of Labor Statistics. You could also be
asked to decide the feasibility of starting a new business in an international setting. Because these
issues require more complex reasoning, you will find that "thinking in writing" about these
problems facilitates your efforts to find solutions.
Although university writing assignments differ somewhat in emphasis from your workplace writing,
the methods and strategies these assignments teach you will be useful in your workplace writing.
For this reason, this guide focuses on university writing. Fortunately, the processes writers follow
enable successful writing in many different environments.

Characteristics of successful academic writing

 Successful academic writing communicates your message clearly. The following questions will help
you prepare a successful assignment response. Ask yourself the following questions:
 Does my assignment answer the question/respond to the task?
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 Is my assignment clearly structured?

 Does my assignment express my position on the topic and is my assignment structured to
support my position?
 Does my assignment provide evidence for my position – with references?
 Is my assignment coherent and does it present my position consistently and logically?
 Is my assignment expressed clearly in sentences and paragraphs?
 In the following sections of this chapter, we discuss how to fulfil these requirements by
working through a set of steps:
 task analysis
 collecting sources
 reading, taking notes and planning
 drafting
 editing and proofreading

Academic writing has various features which make it different from everyday language. Academic
writing is:
 formal
 impersonal
 uses selected grammar patterns
 formal signalling and connectors
 formal cohesion techniques
Writing style is developed over time with practice. If you are new to academic writing style, factor
time into your schedule to learn. Find, highlight and learn language patterns and expressions used
widely in academic sources in your field and gradually improve your own writing by incorporating
such language patterns. As with all skills,
It is better to begin improving your writing in your first year rather than still being a beginner later.
Ensure you allow several weeks for drafting assignments so that you can focus on making your
ideas clear through careful attention to grammar and vocabulary and to mechanics such as spelling
and punctuation.

Formal academic language

The writing style (or register) in university studies is formal, rather than informal. While you may use
colloquial or idiomatic expressions in your casual speech, this is not appropriate in assignment writing. You
need to use precise, formal vocabulary at all times. Have a good dictionary and thesaurus available whenever
you are writing. Learn to use them effectively. Do not rely exclusively on the synonyms option available
with your word processor, as it is designed for everyday English, not academic English.

Informal
Around you, you can see lots of kinds of
communication of businesses, e.g., ads
On TV, internet, newspapers, radio, catalogues and
promos in shops.
The organisational culture would have to be the
top bit of the internal environment of an
organisation.
Formal
There are various modes of communication that
an organisation can utilise; for example, advertising
through television, internet, newspapers,
magazines, radio, catalogues and promotion in
stores themselves.
One of the most essential parts of the internal
environment of an organisation is the
organisational culture.

Colloquial or spoken language is not suitable.

Do not use personal pronouns “I”, “you”, “we”
Do not use abbreviations or contractions such as ‘don’t’ or ‘can’t’.
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Precise terms should be used. This vocabulary is too informal and too vague.

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Impersonal Style
The tone of your writing should be objective. This means that you rarely use first person pronouns, such as
“I’ and “we”. For instance:

Personalised expression Objective expression

I found that there were several views in the Several views on the topic are postulated in
literature on the topic. the literature.
It seems that …
Evidence suggests that …
I think that …
The situation appears to be that …

Academic grammar
Verb tenses
There are conventions regarding which verb tense to use where in academic writing. Although other tenses
occur, the three most common tenses in academic writing are present simple, past simple and present
perfect. Use verb tenses consistently to ensure smooth flow of expression. Briefly, use present simple for:
 referring to a source text (e.g. “Smith (2011) states that…”; “Ling (2004) explores the nature of…”; “As
Northingham and West suggest, there is…”)
 stating facts (e.g. “The rate of increase is significant.”)
 implications of results (e.g. “The results indicate that…”)
 conclusions (e.g. “Further research is required”)
Use past simple for an action or event at a specific, definite time in the past, or when discussing another
researcher’s work (Literature review) or when reporting your method or results:
 literature review (e.g. “Smith argued…”)
 reporting methods (e.g. “347 managers were interviewed….”; “Smith statistically modelled
 the frequency of…”)
 reporting results (e.g. “Levels of productivity increased…”)
 history (e.g. “In 2005, the Accounting Standards were altered.”)
Use present perfect for an action or event in the past at no specific point; for a past action or event with
current consequences; for change; or to indicate importance or controversy:
 a past action or event with current consequences (e.g. “The organisation has managed the crisis
successfully”)
 change (e.g. “Revenue has increased substantially”)
 emphasising current relevance or continuing debate (e.g. “Godfrey et..al. have emphasized that modern
financial theory …”; “Samson has modified the concept of …”)

Passive and active sentence constructions

While you should use a combination of active and passive sentence structures in your writing, active
constructions are preferred. Note the difference between active and passive sentence structures below:

Passive sentence construction Active sentence construction

The financial process was controlled by the The accountant controlled the financial process.
accountant.

Start the sentence with the more important information. If the important information is who did something
put the subject first (e.g. ’the accountant’) and use active construction. If the important information is the
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idea or event (e.g. ‘the financial process’), put it first and use passive construction. Passive construction
focusses on the concept (‘The financial process’) or event, not who was involved; while active constructions
emphasise the agent (‘The accountant’). Use passive sentence construction if the subject is not relevant (e.g.
in the methods section of a report) or is unknown.

Formal signalling and connectors

An important part of your writing is the use of signalling or sign-posts, and connective words and phrases.
Signalling explains briefly to the reader the direction and purpose of pieces of information. For instance,
signalling or sign-posting may include statements such as:
 before discussing …, it is necessary to define the terms
 following the explanation above of the nature of …. and its effects on … , discussion can now focus on
…
Connective words and phrases can help your reader to understand the thinking that underpins your writing.
For instance:
 then, next, after, while, since (time connectors)
 therefore, consequently, as a result (cause/effect connectors)
 in addition, moreover, furthermore, similarly (connectors adding ideas)
 but, conversely, nevertheless, however, although (connectors contrasting ideas)
Look at academic articles and books to find examples of connectors, and try to use them in your own
writing.
Cohesion
There are various techniques for ensuring your writing is cohesive, or well connected, for example:
 repetition of key words
 use of substitutes such as synonyms, pronouns, summary phrases
 punctuation
Example: repetition of key words
Passive and active sentence constructions

While you should use a combination of active and passive sentence structures in your writing, do not
overuse the passive construction. It can lead to blandness in your writing. A majority of active constructions
in a text is preferred. Note the difference between active and passive sentence structures below:

Example: use of substitutes and alternative expressions

Target Markets, Positioning, and Segmentation

Not everyone likes the same cereal, restaurant, university, or movie. Therefore, marketers start by dividing the market
into segments. They identify and profile distinct groups of buyers who might prefer or require varying product and
service mixes by examining demographic, psychographic, and behavioral differences among buyers.
After identifying market segments, the marketer decides which present the greatest opportunities- which are its target
markets. For each, the firm develops a market offering that it positions in the minds of the target buyers as delivering some
central benefit(s).

Source: Kotler & Keller (2011) p.32.

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Common errors to avoid

avoid do
avoid won’t; can’t; didn’t; haven’t will not; cannot; did not; have not
contractions Export figures won’t improve Export figures will not improve until the
until the economy is stronger. economy is stronger.
avoid informal not…any no
negatives The analysis didn’t yield any… The analysis yielded no new results.
not…much little
The government didn’t allocate The government allocated little funding to the
much finding to the program. program.
not …many few
This problem has few viable solutions.
This problem doesn’t have many
viable solutions.
avoid multi- This method will sort out the
word verbs; problems. This method will solve the problems. We need
choose formal We need to break down the to analyse the problem.
verbs problem into smaller parts.
avoid run-on ‘etc.’; ‘and so on’; ‘and so forth’
expressions These microchips can be used in These microchips can be used in robots, CD
robots, CD players, etc. players and other electronic devices.
avoid direct What can be done to lower costs? It is necessary to consider ways to lower costs.
questions
avoid placing Actually, very little is known place the adverb within the verb
adverbs in the about… This model was Very little is actually known about…
wrong position developed by Smith
This model was originally developed by Smith.
originally.

Editing and proofreading

It is important to understand that writing is a process. Once you have completed a rough draft, you need to
check that your ideas are clearly expressed, and that your writing is grammatically accurate. You can check
this by having someone read over your piece of work pointing out areas and sentences where your ideas are
unclear. You can also read it aloud, and when you are listening to it you can often pick up mistakes, such as
incomplete sentences.
Ensure you correct errors in your final draft, that your Word dictionary is set to English (Australia), and that
you spell check the final document. However, be aware that computer spelling and grammar checkers are
limited because they are designed for basic, not academic, use. If you rely exclusively on computer checkers
you will only produce basic, not academic, writing. It is your responsibility to correct all errors; a truly
professional document has zero errors. Allow a break of several days so that you see your work more
objectively and then spend two or three days editing and proofreading in detail. In particular, this means:

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Editing & proofreading

Edit Check the details

Argument Your position is clearly stated; reasons for position are given; logical organisation of
reasons; convincing evidence
Logical One major reason per paragraph; logical pattern or organisation (order of significance,
development cause- effect; positive-negative; etc.)
Structure Introduction (background, scope, rationale, definitions, position)
Body (separate paragraph for each main idea; every paragraph has a topic sentence;
supporting sentences relevant to topic sentence, specific evidence e.g. statistic, study,
quote, example, evidence is academically acceptable, all sources referenced)
Conclusion (relevant to the position; draws argument together effectively;
significance or implications of argument)
Proofread Check the details
Academic style formal; impersonal style; signals & linking; qualifying & boosting; formal vocabulary;
cohesion and connections within and between sentences; substitution (synonyms,
reference words, transition signals); quoting; paraphrasing
Grammar sentence types; no fragments; correct nouns and articles; correct subject verb
agreement; correct collocation; verb tenses; word form
Spelling read backwards word by word to isolate spelling
Punctuation commas; apostrophes; semicolons; full stops; spacing
Referencing capitals; italics; punctuation; spacing
Presentation margins; body and block text; font; line spacing; title page; consistent headings;
graphics and captions; word count (see Appendix C)

Checklist for academic writing skills

 respond to the assignment question/task. Analyse the task so that your response is relevant, effective and
creative
 read and synthesise views on the topic so that you develop your own position
 ensure that the reasons for your position are clearly stated in topic sentences for paragraphs. Use
data / evidence from the literature to support your reasons
 limit a sentence to a single idea. Use simple sentences for strong claims; compound sentences for
ideas of equal value (e.g. adding ideas, sequencing ideas, contrasting ideas); and complex sentences to
create a hierarchy with one part of the more important than its supporting parts
 ensure that pronouns are clear
 be aware that different settings have different expectations for written and oral communication.
Learn to identify and respond appropriately according to the setting.
 different disciplines in Business and Economics have different preferences for written
communication (e.g. essay style, report style, case study style). Learn to identify and respond
appropriately
 the writing skills you learn and refine during your degree will be transferrable after graduation

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How Does University Writing Differ from Workplace Writing?

Just as university writing is specific to your mission as you earn your academic degree, workplace
writing is specific to the needs of your job. Most of the time, however, the specific format and
content of workplace writing have already been established by others. You may use templates, or
documents already set up with the correct format and subject headings. As a writer, your role may
be one of information gatherer, and, in some instances, you may never write an entire document on
your own.
One of the major differences between workplace writing and university writing is reflected in the
expectations of those who assign the writing. In the workplace, the emphasis is on producing a
written product. In university writing, the emphasis is on writing to think, writing to learn, and
writing to demonstrate learning. For example, at work, you may be expected to write a memo to
employees to explain a procedural change. In a university assignment, you may be expected to
understand the process of creating a memo, to clearly explain the new policy, and to demonstrate
reader-centred writing techniques in writing the memo.
Your workplace writing may also differ from university writing in the number of abstract ideas it
contains and in the ways that you as a writer are expected to work with them. In general, workplace
writing conveys information and is predetermined in purpose and form, whereas academic writing
shows knowledge and understanding of both content and process. Workplace writing tends to be
pragmatic—oriented toward completing a work-related task—whereas university writing enables
you to explore new avenues of thought.
Although the expectations differ, both the workplace and university offer you many opportunities to
write to different audiences and to adopt different styles, depending on your assignments. As a
manager in business and as a university student, for example, you may write letters, memos,
performance evaluations, status reports, financial reviews, feasibility studies, proposals, and many
other types of documents. However, you may never write anything in the workplace like the thesis
you write to complete your bachelor of business administration or finance degree.

Differences between Academic Writing and Other Writings

Writing is a skill that is required in many contexts throughout life. For instance, you can write an
email to a friend or reflect on what happened during the day in your personal diary.
 in these kinds of interpersonal settings (or intrapersonal in the case of a diary record), the aim
may be to communicate the events that have happened in your life to someone close to you, or to
yourself. Opportunities abound for personal reflection.
 it is expected that in writing about these life events, you will include your personal judgements
and evaluations, which may be measured by your feelings and thoughts.
 the personal stories you write in a diary or email to friends can be written down at the moment
they enter your mind.
 there is no need to follow a structure, as prose on the page or the computer screen appears
through freely associated ideas.
Similarly, another quality of writing in personal contexts is that it is typically informal, so there is
no need to adhere to structures of punctuation or grammar (although your reader may be quite
appreciative if you do so). In these settings, it is perfectly acceptable to deploy colloquialisms,
casual expressions, and abbreviations, like “that’s cool”, “by the way…”, “slacker”, “Palmy”, “b4”,
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and “thru”.
In contrast, academic writing does many of the things that personal writing does not. Firstly, some
kind of structure is required, such as a beginning, middle, and end. This simple structure is typical
of an essay format, as well as other assignment writing tasks, which may not have a clearly
articulated structure.
In the case of an essay, the introductory paragraph informs the reader about the nature of the topic,
which is discussed and evaluated in the middle of the essay, also referred to as the body.
The introduction may also summarise very succinctly, in a sentence or two, your position on the
issue, which is then elaborated on at length in the series of paragraphs that make up the essay’s
body.
Lastly, the end paragraph constitutes a conclusion in which you may summarise the overall points
made, but obviously not every single one, as there is often never the word space to do so.
The concluding paragraph is also a good point at which to move the essay forward to touch on
implications or future advancements surrounding the issues addressed.
Another type of structure, common in university assignments is that of a report, often organised
around the identification of problems or difficulties and corresponding solutions.
 unlike most essays, a report is divided according to clearly labelled sections, such as
“Introduction”, “Discussion”, “Conclusions”, and “Recommendations”.
 further, unlike an essay, reports allow for bulleted points with respect to the Conclusions and
Recommendations sections.
Consequently, in briefly considering the formats expected of typical university assignments, it is
clear that they do follow a formal structure, which is often less clearly demarcated, if at all, in
personal writing contexts.
A second difference between academic writing and other writing genres is based on the citation of
published authors.
 If you make judgements about something in academic writing, there is an expectation that you
will support your opinion by linking it to what a published author has previously written about the
issue.
 Indeed, citing the work of other authors is central to academic writing because it shows you have
read the literature, understood the ideas, and have integrated these issues and varying perspectives
into the assignment task.
 The importance placed on referring to other authors in your work can be reflected in the elaborate
referencing conventions that have been created within different disciplines, such as APA (American
Psychological Association) referencing, which is used in psychology, education, some social sciences,
as well as for business.
Thirdly, in academic writing you should always follow rules of punctuation and grammar, especially
as the end-user or consumer of your writing, unlike a friend, is likely to be very different from you and will
not always know to what you are referring. Hence, it is vital that you are clear. Punctuation as well as the
conventions of grammar are universally known systems (within English speaking cultures) that
maintain clarity and avoid ambiguity in expression.
Interestingly though, there are other situations where you may find yourself adhering to some of the
principles underlying academic writing.
 one example is writing a covering letter for an employment position, or, even, taking minutes in a
meeting. On the other hand, minute-taking may focus more on brief note-taking as opposed to fully
constructed sentences furnished with marks of punctuation.
 nevertheless, in a covering letter it would be unwise to use colloquialisms for a potential employer to
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read.
 similarly, it would be to your advantage to write down your ideas using some kind of structure, even f it
is ensuring that you have paragraphs that contain a distinct set of things to talk about, which then can be
differentiated from another paragraph.
Yet, aside from all this, there are still some features of covering letters and meeting minutes that are
distinct from other aspects of academic writing.
Traditionally, academic topics have focused on abstract things, like ideas and concepts, which
cannot, necessarily, be given in a concrete or physical form. Hence, while minute-taking in
meetings and covering letters for potential employers draw on physical, practical, and functional
tasks, academic writing is often more likely to focus on abstract processes and relationships. Yet,
despite the abstract, non-material structure of some academic topics, you may be able to borrow
concrete and physically oriented words to explain these abstract ideas and the relationships between
them.
• Typically, academic writing requires you to clearly describe abstract forms and their component
parts, their links to other abstract forms, as well as where they are positioned in relation to a
general, overall system.
• Even if you are dealing with a practically oriented topic like economics, computer science,
rehabilitation, nursing, or teaching, the academic practice of learning about these things will likely
require you to delve into theories, philosophies, concepts, and other abstract ideas that underlie the
practical nature of the activities concerned.
• Therefore, the very nature of academic writing is also different from many practically-oriented
or socially- oriented writing tasks. This is because academic writing tasks require you to look
beneath the surface for underlying principles, theories, and concepts that can offer mainstream as
well as alternative explanations for common practices, processes, and procedures.
To summarise, academic writing is a special genre of writing that prescribes its own set of rules and
practices.
1. These rules and practices may be organised around a formal order or structure in which to present
ideas, in addition to ensuring that ideas are supported by author citations in the literature.
2. Further, academic writing adheres to traditional conventions of punctuation, grammar, and spelling.
3. Finally, in contrast to many other personal writing contexts, academic writing is different because it
deals with the underlying theories and causes governing processes and practices in everyday life, as well
as exploring alternative explanations for these events.

Why Should You Develop Good Writing Skills?

Whatever subjects you are studying, the readers of your assignments – usually the markers – need
to be able to understand exactly what you are trying to say.
• Hence, in order to persuade and convince them of your argument, in which you integrate ideas
from the literature to help ground your argument, it is vital that you have good communication
skills.
• Generally, the only way in which to demonstrate your skill in communicating to the marker is
through your writing.
• Therefore, developing sound writing, as well as research skills, is an essential part of
succeeding at university.
• Further, developing these skills is also a fundamental aim of course co-ordinators and lecturers,
and accords with the principles underlying a university education.
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Even though assignments may cause a lot of unexpected stress, they are a fact of university life.
Therefore, it is worth your investment in time and commitment to develop good writing skills. In
doing so, you will not only be rewarded by better grades, but also by more efficient and effective
procedures in which to carry out writing tasks, both at university and in later life.

Remember …
• Assignments allow you to come to a better understanding of the subject.
• They provide you with the opportunity to explore something in a more in-depth and analytic
way.
• They allow you to become more active in your learning as well as to become responsible for
your own learning.
• They are a vehicle for demonstrating your knowledge and understanding to the marker, as well
as displaying your ability to reason and write academically.

However …
• Assignments are not last minute tasks.
• They require thought and planning.
• They are activities that allow you to form your own opinions, often guided and based on the
literature.
• They also require you to turn your opinions into a clearly presented argument.
• They require you to make sure your sentences are as clear as possible because written language
can be easily misunderstood.

The study “mindset”

Study at university is like a full-time job that requires commitment and effort, and cannot just be
added on to a range of other interests. It differs in many ways from study in other educational
settings. A major difference is the independence and self-reliance expected of students in their
study. This idea concerns:
 managing your time and balancing your study with other commitments
 your approach to learning in your units
The units that you study present information, concepts and theories. It is expected that you will
understand these fully. In addition, you must think critically and analytically so that you can
evaluate and apply the knowledge, concepts and theories to different situations. You also need to
think about the information from international and global perspectives, and to communicate your
thinking clearly and appropriately orally and in writing.
This means that you must do more in your study than merely learn facts and information, and more
in your written work than merely describe the concepts and knowledge. There are times when you
do need to provide definitions and an overview of concepts and theories, but this usually only
functions as an introduction for your integration of ideas, critical analysis and application, in
relation to the issue, topic and task.
Integration of information and critical and analytical thinking are central to the idea of
independence in study. It means that you take an objective approach to the knowledge, concepts and
theories. Such an approach is necessary so that you can:
 integrate sometimes contrasting or even conflicting ideas from a range of sources, and develop

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your own ideas

 generate your own position
 ‘pull apart’ the knowledge in your units and explain how the parts all work together (analysis)
 evaluate the strengths, weaknesses, advantages and disadvantages of knowledge, concepts and
theories for particular situations (critical approach)
This emphasis may differ from how you approached your study in other educational settings. For
instance, you may have expected there to be one right answer, or only two sides to an issue or topic.
In your university studies, you need to understand that there are multiple views surrounding a topic
or issue. The suitability of the view that you develop, often by synthesising several views, depends
on the perspective from which you look at the issue.
Such a concept of the relativity of knowledge applies to all the business and economics
disciplines. In accounting, for instance, particular accounting situations are interpreted in terms
of the Standard Accounting Concepts; and in Econometrics and Business Statistics a set of
data is interpreted in relation to a particular purpose, or the needs of a particular user.
Your ability to operate in the way explained above is based on your understanding the nature of
academic enquiry and discovery, as we explain in the next section.
Academic inquiry and discovery are concerned with the development or advancement of
knowledge in a field of study, which occurs through research and investigation. Students
engage in academic inquiry and discovery when they integrate and apply knowledge,
concepts and theories to different situations. Thus, in university study, there are:
 no absolutes
 knowledge evolves as researchers challenge, confirm or modify earlier understandings
When investigating an issue for an assignment task that is based on evidence from the
literature, you need to review and integrate the range of perspectives surrounding the issue or
topic. When you have formed your response and structured your written work to express this,
you must indicate to your reader how you have arrived at that view. That is, the ideas and
views that you read in the literature function as the ‘building blocks’ of your response. In
your writing, if you do not explain to your reader the evidence or the building blocks for your
view, you are only expressing opinions. These are ideas unsubstantiated by evidence and are
not valued in university study.
In a unit such as Econometrics and Business Statistics, you may be required to analyse a set
of data from a perspective of, for instance, a marketing manager, or a city council. Thus, the
information in the data that would be relevant to a marketing manager may emphasise aspects
such as sales, while for the city council, which is concerned with providing services, the
emphasis may be on a city’s population and its needs. So, in units that rely on data such as
Econometrics and Business Statistics, you need to analyse the data, form a perspective on the
issue from the data analysis, and then select appropriate data to support the viewpoint you
have developed. In a unit such as Economics, it means being able to distinguish between facts
and value statements.

Approaching study in the faculty disciplines

As you continue with your faculty study, you will realise that the approaches to knowledge in the
disciplines of the faculty differ in some ways. Understanding such variation will help you adjust
your thinking and approach across your units of study. This is particularly applicable if you are a
double degree student, and studying across two faculties.
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For instance, when you are studying a first year law unit in your Business and Economics degree,
you will be presented with problem-solving assignments. You approach and think about these, and
structure information differently, than you would for essays in a unit such as Management, or, for
example, reports in a Marketing unit. You are using different forms of data and evidence, and
applying critical analysis in ways that are particular to the unit and its discipline.
The approach that the disciplines take to knowledge is reflected in the way information is put
together in the texts and in lectures. These exemplify the characteristics of the particular discipline.
To develop some understanding, you should think about your units in terms of:
 the type of data and information used
 the way data and information is integrated, analysed and critiqued
 the way data and information is used as evidence in addressing issues and topics
 the way data and information is presented in written form
This will help you to develop the appropriate ‘mindset’, or ‘way of looking at the world’ that is
characteristic of the discipline in which you are studying and writing.

Reading techniques

Technique Purpose Method

To gain a general Read quickly, do NOT read every word. Features of the text to
overview of an read:
unfamiliar text.  Title, headings, subheadings
Skimming To build a mental  Abstract
framework, or  Introductory paragraph
structure, for  Concluding paragraph
understanding an  First sentence of each paragraph (long texts)
unfamiliar text
To find a specific Read quickly; do NOT read every word.
Scanning unknown detail Scroll quickly though the text to find the detail you
e.g. a date or statistic need (as for a phone book).
or name
To gain thorough Read carefully several times.
Close reading comprehension of what Your first reading should focus on main ideas.
the writer is saying Your second and subsequent reading/s should focus on
relationships, secondary ideas and supporting evidence.
This is done at the same time as the second or subsequent
close reading/s.
Relate this information to information you already know or
from other sources.
Make judgements about the quality of ideas, arguments,
Critical reading To evaluate what the evidence in this source.
writer is doing Focus on how the writer uses particular points; for example to:
Agree with, defend or confirm something;
■

Propose something new;

■

Reformulate an existing idea to make a better explanation;

■

Dismiss someone else’s idea because it is inadequate,

■

irrelevant, incoherent, or has other flaws; or

■ Concede that someone else’s point has some merits but it
needs to be
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changed in important ways?

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The following list contains some of the more common instruction words for assignments. Synonyms for
instruction words include ‘direction words’, ‘command words’, ‘task words’ and ‘function words’. Use this
list as a reference resource.
account for explain something by giving reasons why it happens or why it is the way it is.
analyse consider the nature of something by identifying the elements/parts and showing how
they are related. Describe, discuss and give reasons for what you find. Analysing must
be done in a methodical and logical way.
argue present a case defending a position. Make sure you state your position and provide
reasons for your position plus evidence for each of your reasons.
assess use criteria to measure the value or success of something. Be sure of your facts and
make your argument strong.
classify carefully consider the items that you have to discuss and group them together
logically. You do this to (and justify) show your understanding of the similarities and
differences between the items. You usually need to explain your reasons for grouping
the items in a particular way.
comment on identify the important points and write about them. Neglecting crucial points in favour
of minor points loses marks.
compare identify characteristics or qualities that resemble each other. Emphasise similarities
and mention differences where appropriate.
contrast stress the dissimilarities and differences between things, events, problems or qualities.
consider think very carefully about the issue and present your argument logically. Avoid putting
ideas randomly into your writing.

criticise write about the strengths and weaknesses of something. Make a judgement about
whether there are more strengths or weaknesses.
define refer to how experts in the field use the term (not a simple dictionary definition). Say
whether you are using one definition (and why you chose it over others) or whether
you are combining features from two or more definitions. Give the limits of the
definition and show how it differs from items in other classes.
describe write about the features of something in a logical manner. Do not give your opinion or
explain why it is the way it is.
differentiate focus on the fine differences between two or more things. You may mention
between similarities briefly, but this or distinguish is about what makes things different from
each other and why the difference is important.
discuss write about an issue from two or more viewpoints and give balanced support and
examples for each viewpoint. Then make a judgement about how satisfactory each
viewpoint is based on the evidence you gave.
outline present the main features and any important subordinate points- omit minor details.
Stress the arrangement or classification.
review examine critically, analysing and commenting on important or controversial
statements.
state present the point without explanation, examples or details.

summarise give the main points in condensed form. Omit details, examples or explanations.

to what discuss an issue and evaluate what you find. You will almost certainly favour one side
extent? of the issue and must give reasons why. Total agreement or disagreement – or
balancing both (or all) sides equally- is highly unlikely.

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trace this implies writing about the main points of the history/chronology of something. Your
selection of the main points is crucial.

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Reporting verbs used in author prominent (i.e. author before information) citing can do a lot of work for you. Brick
(2006, pp.113–116) identifies three categories of reporting verbs, modified below:
1. neutral research reporting verbs such as study, investigate, research, explore used simply to introduce the topic
studied by the source, e.g.
n Smith (2009) investigated the effect of natural disasters on small business
n Jones (2010) studied changes in SES organisational structure over a five year period

2. discourse reporting verbs used to comment on what the source is doing with the information, e.g.

Reporting verb Aspect or job

state to indicate your source presents something as a fact

claim to indicate your source has presented something as fact/is advancing an argument

point out to indicate your source emphasises something

explain to indicate your source gives details of how or why

discuss to indicate your source examines in something in detail

mention to indicate your source deals with the issue very briefly

note to indicate your source deals with the issue very briefly

conclude to indicate the conclusion the source reaches

argue to present your source’s position

posit/postulate to present your source’s position

reject to indicate your source does not support a position

evaluate to indicate your source is making a judgement

suggest to indicate your source thinks something is possibly important but needs further
investigation

emphasise to indicate your source’s most important point

3. evaluating reporting verbs used to show your judgement of the source, e.g.

Reporting verb Aspect or job

contend you disagree with your source’s position

assert you distance yourself from the source’s position

assume you think the source has treated something a fact but you believe it is not

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reveal you think the source gives information previously hidden or not widely known

allege you think the source makes a claim without proof

imply you think the source says something indirectly (knowingly or unknowingly)

exaggerate you think the source places too much emphasis on something

Find, highlight and learn how reporting verbs are used in academic sources. Choose reporting verbs to
clarify and strengthen your position.

Finally, assignments are NOT just about grades – they allow you to develop and enhance your own thinking,
writing, and evaluation skills, which can have spin-offs in many other aspects of your present and future life.

Do not be afraid to take your time in learning how to write good assignments.
It will be worth it!

Common Key Task Words in Assignments

Account for:To give reasons, explain why something has happened. Analyse: To break the subject up
into its main ideas, and evaluate them.
Assess: To judge the value of a subject critically.
Comment on: To discuss, explain, and give your opinion on the ideas expressed.
Compare: To show the similarities and differences between two or more subjects.
Criticise: To make your judgement about the views expressed and support your judgement with
evidence.
Define: To give the meaning of a word term, distinguishing it from closely related subjects,
sometimes by examples and illustrations.
Describe: To give a detailed account of the characteristics of a subject.
Discuss: To investigate and present the different aspects of a problem or subject and come to some
conclusion.
Evaluate: To appraise or estimate the worth of something, to some extent an explained personal
opinion.
Examine: To inquire into, and consider a problem carefully.
Explain: To account for a subject’s character, causes, results, implications, etc., by clearly stating
and interpreting the relevant details.
Generate: To propose new ideas or new interpretations of available subjects.
Hypothesise: To propose a supposition which can be used as a basis for testing conclusions.
Illustrate: To explain or clarify a problem using concrete examples, diagrams, or figures.
Integrate: To draw together in a logical related way two or more subjects not previously related.
Interpret: To explain the meaning of something, to make it clear and explicit, and to evaluate it in
terms of your own knowledge.
Justify: To provide the reasons for your conclusions or for the statement made in the question.
Outline: To give the main features or general principles of a subject leaving out minor details.
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Prove: To show the truth of a statement by argument, experiment, or test.

Relate: To establish the connection between one thing and another.
Review: To survey and critically examine a subject.
State: To describe the subject in precise terms, or set down an exact meaning.
Summarise: To make a concise account of the main ideas of a subject or argument, omitting
explanatory details and examples.

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