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(De)Constructing prejudice in music education

Keywords: music literacy, South African music education, CAPS, multiculturalism, indigenous
African music

Abstract:

The recent article by Thomas M. Pooley, Extracurricular arts: poverty, inequality and indigenous
musical arts education in postapartheid South Africa (Pooley 2016) offers an opportunity to
engage critically with several misconceptions regarding the teaching and resourcing of music
education in South African schools. The current article challenges many of Pooley’s views and
assertions. It examines how the teaching of music is envisaged in the four educational phases,
and how support materials approved by the Department of Basic Education support teachers
with little or no training in music who may be required to teach the subject. It broaches the role
and function of the Department of Arts and Culture in promoting specific cultural events, and
how the effects of these may be researched. The article also offers the opportunity to examine
more closely what the role and function of South African music departments is, and could be, in
ensuring that appropriate training is provided for music teachers entering the education system.
It finally offers numerous suggestions for new directions in research into South African music
education.

The recent article by Thomas M. Pooley, Extracurricular arts: poverty, inequality and indigenous musical
arts education in postapartheid South Africa (Pooley 2016) offers rather startling views regarding what
he regards as “music education”, or the lack of it, in a small area in KwaZulu-Natal. It cannot go
unchallenged, not least because of the elitist implication that participating in cultural dance festivals is,
somehow, not quite our type, darling; we need to ensure that these musically-uneducated learners are
shown what music literacy is. After all, this is not “music education”, and it shows no sign of developing
“music literacy”, terms that Pooley nowhere attempts to define.

Putting aside his implicit prejudice, Pooley’s conflation of the use of music as a recreational pastime with
music as a curricular subject, leads to a basic misunderstanding of the role of culturally-based music-
making as an integral part of South African society. His assumptions regarding the way in which
curricular music education is resourced by the Department of Basic Education (DBE) are misleading and
uninformed. He finally draws the conclusion that learners at public schools in South Africa (in KwaZulu-
Natal at the very least) have no opportunity to study music at school level in any truly meaningful
manner, and that the current curriculum reinforces segregation and inequality, lacks an egalitarian
approach, and requires urgent review.

I shall deal with each of these contentious issues separately. It is, of course, difficult to comment fully
without knowing to which age group(s) his article refers; I would have expected more rigorous,
academic documentation, and assume that he may be referring to learners between the ages of 13 and
16 (thus, pre-initiates who would not yet be viewed as adults). Even without this information, however,
so many generalisations litter the text that it is necessary firstly to provide some background regarding
one important aspect that is conspicuous by its absence in Pooley’s discussion: the diverse nature of
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South African society, and the attempts to manage this diversity both from a cultural and from an
educational point of view.

Regardless of its physical location in the world, any rural community generally comprises a single
cultural group. Thus, in the rural area in which Pooley did his research, a single language, with possibly a
local dialect predominating, is present; cultural practices are intimately known; and enculturation, in
which indigenous knowledge systems predominate, takes place because the community itself
perpetuates the culture. Once one moves away from such a homogenous society to, for example, a
different society within a school that has created its own microcosm (possibly through being a boarding
establishment), one may expect another cultural system, generally incorporating a range of cultural
practices, to be present. Although such a system will reflect a different set of cultural practices, these
practices are, as before, maintained because the community itself perpetuates them to promote a
homogenous society, once more through enculturation. The nature of schools and communities within
large urban areas, however, are not homogenous, but diverse; do not rely on the community to
perpetuate a specific culture; very often do not have learners able to use one common language at the
same level of proficiency; and may best be described as representing a plurality that reflects limited
enculturation.

At the heart of all South African education policy post-1994 was the understanding of the diversity of
the community to which education was to be offered. Promoting multiculturalism, through which no
single culture was to dominate any other, is the implicit, guiding philosophy. This has, of course, become
increasingly more complex to maintain in South Africa because of the emphasis on English – the
ultimate colonial relic – as the main (and increasingly only) language of instruction. Along with enforcing
a dominant language comes the enforcement of all its cultural baggage, including its sense of
superiority, and a resulting tendency to measure everything from the perspective of that language and
its related culture. In South Africa, the context was “English” between 1910 and 1948 with a disregard
for all local indigenous languages and practices. This changed to “Afrikaans” between 1948 and 1990,
with an emphasis on local languages and practices, despite the limits placed on the education approved
for “non-whites”. After 1990, the emphasis slowly but surely once more shifted away from local
languages and practices to “English” ones (in other words, English colonisation was enforced anew), and
it is this shift, more than any other factor, that gave rise to the initial #RhodesMustFall movement that
has now transformed itself into demands for the “decolonisation” of education. It is surely no
coincidence that the best writing on multiculturalism has come from Indian political theorists and
philosophers like Bhikhu Parekh who live and work as part of a minority group within English society.

The use of the word “multiculturalism” in a South African context differs significantly from the way in
which the term is used in, for example, England or Canada, where it specifically refers to the inclusion of
minority groups within a larger, homogenous society. In South Africa, multiculturalism is used to
describe the accommodation of all cultural groups within a single system, with the accompanying and
implicit respect for differences that may exist. In this regard Gurpreet Mahajan writes:

Multiculturalism is not just a statement of fact, it is also a value. It cherishes cultural

diversity and envisions a society in which different communities forge a common
identity while retaining their cultural provenance. When modern democratic societies
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embrace multiculturalism they demonstrate a deeper and more profound egalitarian

impulse within them than the mere presence of plural cultures. Multiculturalism
acknowledges the existence of diverse communities, but what is more important is
that it accords positive value to the collective identities of all ethnic communities. It
pictures a society which is characterized not by multiple cultural solitudes or endemic
cultural strife, but by communities living together and participating as equal partners
in national political life. (Mahajan 1999)

While this statement reflects the goal envisioned for education in South Africa, it is not necessarily the
goal envisioned by the Department of Arts and Culture (DAC), which overtly strives towards supporting
majority rather than minority groups. Competitions as well as non-competitive festivals in which cultural
dances are showcased have become increasingly popular over the last two decades, and these have, as
their objective, the establishing of pride in one’s own heritage. There is no attempt to promote music
education (largely because no dance form in any culture is regarded as a form of “music”), and very
limited attempts to promote knowledge of the culture being celebrated. The events are ethnic-specific,
in contexts where the culture is already fully comprehended. Pooley states that “These school
competitions are supported by the Department of Arts and Culture, and their vibrancy should continue
to be supported and celebrated because it marks an exceptional display of skill and flair in indigenous
idioms that should lead to further education and training at the tertiary level, and should feed into the
cultural industries thereafter.” (Pooley 2016: 647) [my emphasis]

These are noble sentiments that, for at least the past 15-20 years, have been notably ignored at the
Critical Control Point, to coin a phrase from the food industry: the universities that train music teachers,
whose (non-)actions can produce truly toxic and far-reaching results. This is what has occurred in music
education in South Africa through these institutions’ stubborn refusal to engage fully with the schooling
system, and the even more stubborn refusal to be guided by recommendations from the broad music
industry, or suggestions for the way in which qualifications may be structured to address local needs.

I have not seen any research regarding to what extent the promotion of individual cultures has impacted
on South African communities “living together and participating as equal partners in national political
life”, to reiterate Mahajan’s description. Neither have I seen any research conducted about
multiculturalism as reflected in the changing nature of South African culture, and the determination of
some – using noble-sounding ideologies – to deny or negate change. Parekh, who has greatly influenced
the way in which minorities are treated in the British education system, writes:

What I might call a multiculturalist perspective is composed of the creative interplay

of these three important and complementary insights – namely the cultural
embeddedness of human beings, the inescapability and desirability of cultural
plurality, and the plural and multicultural constitution of each culture. . . .

We instinctively suspect attempts to homogenize a culture and impose a single

identity on it, for we are acutely aware that every culture is internally plural and
differentiated. And we remain equally sceptical of all attempts to present it as one
whose origins lie within itself, as self-generating and sui generis, for we feel
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persuaded that all cultures are born out of interaction with and absorb the influences
of others and are shaped by wider economic, political and other forces. This
undercuts the very basis of Afrocentrism, Eurocentrism, Indocentrism, Sinocentrism
and other kinds of centrisms, all of which isolate the history of the culture concerned
from that of others and credit its achievements to its own genius. (Parekh 1999)

The time has surely come for the focus of research into South African music to move from rehashing
policy documents of almost 50 years ago to researching, amongst other matters, how an inability and,
more importantly, an unwillingness, to accept international best practice has impacted on music
education. I have read more than enough about the Finnish education system (which, interestingly, is
never extended to include what happens beyond the generalist phase, equivalent to the local Grade R-9)
but I have yet to read a South African researcher’s analysis of, for example, music education in Namibia,
Kenya, Ghana, Egypt or any other African country.

1. Music as a recreational pastime

Pooley’s evocative descriptions of “[b]arefooted bodies” and “[b]are-backed [sic] dancers” in “long,
shivering lines, covering their naked breasts with arms and shawls” (Pooley 2016: 640) are no doubt
intended to elicit a response of pity and disbelief that this is the way in which “music” is practiced at
schools in South Africa. Nothing could be further from the truth, or be more effective in constructing
prejudice. I have already noted that his observations pertain only to the cultural festival supported by
the DAC which he attended. Music, in various guises, has been an integral part of the recreational
activities offered at schools throughout South Africa for decades both pre- and post-apartheid, and I
turn now to one national interschool music activity currently supported and also organised by the DBE.

There are very few public schools, particularly in the rural areas, that do not have at least one active
choir, and it surprised me that Pooley did not encounter any, and possibly did not ask about their
existence. Often the conductors are teachers with a passion for choral music who may or may not have
formal musical training. The school may or may not offer music as a subject for the matriculation (Grade
12) examination, and it may be a junior primary, senior primary, junior secondary, or senior secondary
school; a school may also have more than one choir representing each phase. Suburban schools,
particularly primary schools (catering for Grades R-7), also present “musical evenings” or “musicals” that
involve every learner in some way. These events are regarded as a showcase for the learners’ diverse
talents, and the teachers who are most actively involved may or may not have formal musical training.

Interschool choral competitions, reflecting both Western and indigenous African practices, have been an
integral part of the South African school system for decades. Prior to 2003, the various teachers’ unions
had each organised its own competition. After much negotiation, it was agreed that only one
competition would be held annually, and that it would be organised by the Department of Education, of
which the DBE now represents primary and secondary education. This competition, the annual South
African Schools Choral Eisteddfod (SASCE), is hotly contested at local, provincial and national levels.
Highly-demanding set works – including opera arias for aspiring soloists – are prescribed. Often South
African composers, acknowledged in their home provinces, are requested to write works especially for
the Eisteddfod and thereby gain national recognition. In the choirs to which they belong, learners are
taught to read music, using either solfa or staff notation. These choral events allow learners the
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opportunity to perform, and to be accompanied in the final rounds by an orchestra, before their critical
peers, parents and adjudicators in halls (such as the Playhouse in Durban) that can seat thousands. No
wonder then that stars like Pretty Yende, Pumeza Matshikiza, Noluvuyiso Mpofu, Simon Shibambu,
Lukhanyo Moyake, Caroline Modiba and Levy Sekgapane – to name only a few young singers – have
been able to perform internationally as successfully as they continue to do. Without the active support
and encouragement of the DBE, SASCE could not take place every year.

Cries that such events are “Eurocentric” can easily be levelled, but have no substance, either in the
historical background to South Africans’ love of choral music, or in political theory. As Parekh has noted:

…different cultures represent different systems of meaning and visions of the good
life. Since each realises a limited range of human capacities and emotions and grasps
only a part of the totality of human existence, it needs other cultures to help it
understand itself better, expand its intellectual and moral horizon, stretch its
imagination, save it from narcissism to guard it against the obvious temptation to
absolutise itself, and so on. This does not mean that one cannot lead a good life
within one’s own culture, but rather that, other things being equal, one’s way of life is
likely to be richer if one also enjoys access to others, and that a culturally self-
contained life is virtually impossible for most human beings in the modern, mobile
and interdependent world. (Parekh 1999)

In the final analysis, every person chooses that with which s/he wishes to be most closely associated. To
enforce, control, or attempt to prevent this in a country in which freedom of association is an
underpinning value of the Constitution, is seriously misplaced.

2. The role of music within the school curriculum

I need firstly to deal briefly with Pooley’s assertion that private schools offer only the music theory and
practical examinations of Trinity College London (TCL), the Associated Board of the Royal Schools of
Music (ABRSM) or the University of South Africa (Unisa) (Pooley 2016: 649). He then draws the
conclusion that this is the only option available to learners at private schools. He goes further, stating
that “Most private schools have used these examinations since the 19th century as benchmarks for their
students’ instrumental and vocal training…” (Pooley 2016: 649) This date is exaggerated: the London-
based Trinity College (now TCL) and Royal Schools of Music (now ABRSM) first started local examinations
for their own enrolled students in 1877 and 1889 respectively, and only some years later (in all
probability before “most” of the private independent schools were established in South Africa and
considered writing music theory examinations) examined beyond their own confines. Unisa’s
examination system was established in 1918, and, being designed to counter the British influence, was
not used (and largely continues to be ignored) by English-medium schools. Be that as it may, the use of
only graded music theory examinations may be applicable to the school(s) that he visited; however, the
Independent Examinations Board (IEB), whose curricula and examinations are used in all private schools,
has a set music curriculum, and if the school(s) that he visited choose not to follow the curriculum but to
offer decidedly inferior music education at vastly inflated prices, that is their choice. It is also interesting
to note at this point that such theory examinations are no longer recognised by the DBE as being
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equivalent to the music curriculum for Grades 10-12, and public schools only offer such theory
examinations as extra-curricular activities.

Pooley maintains that “These graded examinations continue to set the standard for university
entrance...” (Pooley 2016: 649) Universities that set only these examinations as requirements for an
entry level to their degree courses are, in effect, actively boycotting the attempts by the DBE to provide
a solid preparation for tertiary study. As before, the Critical Control Point lies with the universities, and
their inability to grasp the effects of their decisions.

Pooley appears to grasp that music fulfils different roles during the four stages of education delineated
in the South African schooling system. He fails, however, to appreciate that these roles have been
aligned with international practice. The progression is from general (all learners participate in all arts
subjects, including music, in grades R-6) to limited choice (learners may choose two of four arts subjects,
dependent on the school’s human and physical resources, in grades 7-9) to own choice (learners may
choose any one of the arts subjects, dependent on the ability of the school to offer such subjects, in
grades 10-12). Specialisation is directly related to a learner’s growing awareness of his/her interests and
abilities. Music is treated no differently to the other three arts subjects. Without acknowledging this, a
skewed view of what comprises music education in South African public and private schools is formed.

Before continuing the discussion, it is necessary to note that the learning and teaching support materials
(LTSM) approved by the DBE for purchase by schools are required, where appropriate, to consist of the
following components:

• A textbook for the learner. Learners do not write in these books; they become part of the
school’s resources. They are only replaced when lost or damaged to the extent that they can no
longer be used. This is administered under the “book retention” policy, and publishers must
ensure that books are printed on good quality paper and bound in such a way that a 5-year
lifecycle is possible.
• A workbook for the learner. These books become the learner’s property, and are used, for
example, to complete exercises. These books are replaced on an annual basis.
• A teacher’s guide. This book provides the teacher with full support in the classroom, and it is
indispensable in the teaching process. Detailed guidelines regarding the presentation of the
work, often including memoranda, are provided. These guides are written by experienced
teachers and address teachers working in all schools throughout the country.

By requiring that a workbook and a teacher’s guide should generally accompany textbooks, the DBE
ensures as best it can that teachers – however poorly trained – are able to present lessons efficiently in
every subject offered, including music. The teacher’s guides ensure, amongst other things, that teachers
are conscious of the amount of time that should be spent on each section of the curriculum, and provide
practical assistance in completing the curriculum within the timeframe given. Workbooks, with
accompanying memoranda for teachers, provide suitable exercises that support learning and ensure
that an acceptable standard of work is achieved. Many private schools have opted to use no “paper”
books but electronic resources only and therefore purchase only such eBooks as are available (amongst
others, for the Creative Arts published by ViaAfrika Publishers). No eBooks are available for Music
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Grades 10-12. This may explain why a school opts for the graded theory examinations; certainly, this
statement by Pooley requires further, more detailed research to be undertaken.

I turn now to the role of music in each of the four phases.

a. The Foundation Phase

It is widely acknowledged that, in the Foundation Phase (grades R-3) music should be integrated into the
general learning process. Rhyming songs, counting songs, and games songs, for example, are taught to
reinforce learning in other areas. The use of body percussion and movement not only promote the
development of motoric co-ordination, but also provide moments of sheer relaxation and enjoyment.
There is, contrary to Pooley’s assertion, no “choice” whether to teach music or not; the approach is an
integrated one. It may be prudent to consult a more recent study such as Andreas Mitas’s A critical
comparison of the role and function of music education in the foundation phase of the post-apartheid
South African school curricula. (Mitas 2015) She particularly identifies that “The CAPS expects music
educators to teach creative games and skills, and to improvise and to interpret with a focus on the
performing arts: a clear influence of the approach to music as part of a holistic performance practice in
African traditional music”. (Mitas 2015: 59) One cannot decry the lack of indigenous African practices
within “music education” while ignoring the role and function of such songs in those same practices, and
then turn the use of that philosophy into a negative aspect of the curriculum. One either acknowledges
and incorporates such practices, or rejects them.

Currently the DBE lists sets of Life Skills textbooks for the Foundation Phase published by Oxford
University Press, Maskew Miller Longman, Macmillan (SA) and Cambridge University Press in all 9 official
languages. (DBE 2015) It would be worthwhile to explore these resources.

b. The Intermediate Phase

In the intermediate phase, learners are encouraged to become creatively involved with the arts. Music,
dance and drama are presented as a single component, in keeping with the “musical arts education”
required by Pooley, and can be presented within a cultural context to reflect the location of the school
and the knowledge of the teacher. Knowledge of music notation is presented at this stage, including
basic note values, rests, a basic knowledge of staff notation and of solfa notation, and the introduction
of the concept of the major scale. One may express concern about the inclusion of the “major scale”;
this is, however, the scale used most widely in popular music, which is the music listened to by all
learners, regardless of their location or income group. While school classrooms may not fulfil Pooley’s
requirements of a staff pasted against a wall, or drawn on a blackboard, the textbooks compiled by
Heinemann Publishers, Maskew Miller Longman, Cambridge University Press, Oxford University Press
and Via Afrika most certainly include such resources. The books are all listed in the LTSM catalogue, and
are available in either English or Afrikaans. (DBE 2015) Once more, criticism cannot be levelled until an
analysis of the LTSM available has been made.

In keeping with the “musical arts” approach preferred by the DBE at this level, learners are encouraged
to make their own instruments, to use more advanced body percussion, and to integrate drama and
dance with music.
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One may choose to describe such an approach as the “massification” of music education; it is, however,
the way in which music is integrated into the basic curriculum internationally. Pre-1994 “white” schools
offered “class music”, providing opportunities to sing and (occasionally) listen to music. The schools that
taught any form of music notation were very few and far between, and school music classes were
generally (even by myself as a learner 60 years ago) regarded as possibly the worst of all school
experiences. Often these classes were presented to an entire grade, or even to the whole school. If ever
“massification” took place, this was where, when and how it happened.

The claim that offering music as part of the Creative Arts curriculum “leads directly to the overburdening
of educators, and [as a result] diversity can only be implemented where sufficient resources and training
are available to teachers” (Pooley 2016: 643) reflects a complete misunderstanding of education
principles within this phase. Few primary school teachers in South Africa, using resources that address
diversity and are produced by highly experienced teachers, and that are available from the DBE, would
not be able to cope, or would consider themselves to be “overburdened”. If universities are not aware
of these resources, they should rethink their role and function within music education, and probably
within the whole education sector.

Pooley’s view reveals yet another element conspicuous by its absence in his article: the role that is (not)
played by universities countrywide in training teachers appropriately. When reference is made to “a
paucity of textbooks and specialised learning materials” (Pooley 2016, 641), but the available resources
are not even mentioned, volumes are spoken about what is forming the basis of the criticism, and the
level of (mis)information at, at least, the University of South Africa, where Pooley lectures. In a footnote,
he mentions, too, that he has “since 2013 mentored hundreds of teachers from across Gauteng as part
of a community engagement project sponsored by the Department of Art History, Visual Arts and
Musicology at the University of South Africa, and run in collaboration with the Gauteng DoE
[Department of Education]. On average 50 teachers per year attend workshops where they are taught
music and visual arts.” (Pooley 2016, 653) Pooley gives no indication regarding what “music” these
teachers are taught, or whether it relates directly to the information required to teach the CAPS content
at school, or whether indeed any textbooks as approved by the DBE are discussed or utilised.

This glaring omission could form the basis for further research concerning the knowledge of academics
in charge of the training of music teachers at universities of the resources approved by the DBE, and
how these are utilised in their own curricula to prepare teachers to teach. Further research could
involve determining how many recently-graduated teachers are using, or requesting their schools to
provide, the LTSM approved by the DBE. This research could go a considerable way in helping to
ascertain the reasons underpinning poor/good/excellent learner achievement.

c. The Senior Phase

Pooley states categorically that “In schools where drama, dance or visual arts are preferred by teachers,
there will be no music at all”. (Pooley 2016: 645) Let us assume that a school omits music and chooses
one of the other options: drama and dance; or dance and visual arts; or drama and visual arts. It is close
to impossible to imagine any one of these three combinations as being able to exclude, in its totality,
“music”. The Dance and Drama curricula both require knowledge of music terminology, ranging from
the definition of phrasing, rhythm and beat, through to being able to move to, and to improvise to,
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music. In combination with Visual Arts, it is not possible to avoid gaining at least some knowledge of
music too. Teachers with a knowledge of these three arts subjects can, in my experience, easily refer to
music examples as they relate to their own areas of specialisation, and, since music is included in a
generalist way in their own training, they can teach it. Music students at university, by contrast, seldom
(if ever) are introduced to drama (most lecturers would be hard-pressed to explain how rhetorical
principles influenced Baroque and Classical music, or opera), dance terms (despite “teaching” opera), or
the visual arts (whether discussing Impressionism, Expressionism, any other “ism”, or performance art).
It is therefore no wonder that school principals would rather exclude “music” from their timetable than
appoint a “music teacher” who cannot address his/her subject as it relates to any one of the other arts
subjects.

This is, yet again, an indictment not of the DBE, but of the paucity of the training of music graduates,
and even more so, of the paucity of the training of music teachers. There are excellent books for the
Creative Arts that have been approved by the DBE and, since no book that does not cover the entire
CAPS content is ever approved for use in schools, it also indicates that many music lecturers (and, by
diffusion, their graduates) do not know – or even understand – that all it takes for a music graduate to
be able to teach the Creative Arts, is to buy one of these textbooks, page through it, decide on the arts
subject in which s/he is most interested, read all about it, and then to apply the guidelines provided in
the teacher’s guide.

One cannot even present the argument that there is only one book available, and that one does not
“like” its approach: the DBE lists approved books, in either English or Afrikaans, produced by Oxford
University Press, Via Afrika Publishers, Maskew Miller Longman, Cambridge University Press, Macmillan
South Africa, and Shuter and Shooter. There is no paucity of material, simply paucity of knowledge and
of real involvement with the education system, and with what a teacher is meant to teach.

This glaring lack of knowledge could, in this phase too, form the basis for further research concerning
the knowledge of academics in charge of the training of music teachers at universities of the resources
approved by the DBE, and how these are utilised in their own curricula to prepare teachers to teach.

Further research could involve determining how many recently-graduated teachers are using, or
requesting their schools to provide, the resource materials approved by the DBE in their own
classrooms. Yet further research could determine how many non-musically trained teachers are
teaching music in this phase where specialisation starts to be encouraged, and how they are coping with
their responsibilities. The views of school principals regarding the appointment of teachers for the
Creative Arts also need to be investigated.

(d) The Further Education and Training Phase

Teaching music in the three final school years is decidedly challenging. The curriculum presupposes that
a learner may not have had access to a specialist music teacher in the Senior Phase, and is aligned so
that basic music literacy is revised in the first two terms of Grade 10. An excellent inclusion concerns
what constitutes “music” and “sound”, which is easily extended to cover sound waves and basic
acoustics to encourage alignment with mathematics, physical science and technology.
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It is only in this phase where learners finally choose an instrument on which to perform, and they may
choose to do voice, which accommodates those who do not have a “chromatic marimbas, pianos and
organs” at their disposal, a lack that Pooley finds extremely disturbing. (Pooley 2016: 647) It would,
incidentally, be interesting to know how many public schools, whether in rural or urban areas, lay claim
to having those instruments, and when and why they were purchased.

Apart from the voice, a wide variety of instruments that may be offered for the practical component of
the examination – including steel pans and indigenous instruments – is listed. Many instruments require
specific physical development to be able to be played properly; the flute, trumpet and saxophone, for
example, require control over the embouchure and a level of breath control that is only possible after
the age of about 15. No learner will therefore be disadvantaged by not having access to an instrument
like a piano or an organ, or even a chromatic marimba.

In this phase, the curriculum is divided into three topics; other subjects may refer to “themes”. Topic 1
relates to practical performance; Topic 2 relates to developing a general music literacy; Topic 3
addresses general musical knowledge related to history and, in the case of indigenous music,
performance practice. Learners may choose to specialise in Western art music (WAM, but still obtain a
solid grounding in Jazz and indigenous African music), Jazz (but still obtain a solid grounding in Western
art music and indigenous African music) or indigenous African music (IAM, but still obtain a solid
grounding in Western art music and Jazz). Throughout the phase there are sections that are common to
all three streams, ensuring that a broad knowledge base is created.

It may be argued that the writers of this section of CAPS were over-ambitious. What is, however, clear,
is that they were determined that no style of music would predominate over any other; that learners
and teachers should, ideally, be able to choose the style in which they wished to specialise; and that
WAM, Jazz and IAM would be presented at similar cognitive levels. This curriculum reflects a truly
multicultural approach that is difficult to challenge with any conviction, and simultaneously provided
universities with the opportunity to develop degree courses that would address the needs of a diversity
of learners. Research that attempts to determine why universities chose not to follow this route is long
overdue.

Because of the requirements of DBE that all the content stipulated in CAPS needs to be included in a
textbook before it is approved, it comes as no surprise to find that not a single major publisher
attempted the project, which essentially requires that three textbooks, covering three musical styles
combined into one publication, should be written. A few small, individual efforts were initially produced:
the earliest discussed only IAM, and ignored the knowledge required for Topics 2 and 3; others
attempted to persuade the DBE that a book covering only WAM as required in Topic 3, or the
improvisation component covered in Topic 1, or some kind of general “appreciation” or “notation”,
aimed at no particular grade and emphasising “African” content, should be used. Pooley maintains that
Christine Lucia’s Music Notation: A South African Guide (Unisa Press 2011) “normalises the practise of
music literacy as a South African [sic] institution” and then asks, “What other options are there for
schools practising indigenous musical arts that do not conform to such literacies?” (Pooley 2016: 650)
He is, perhaps, not aware of the damning review of this book written by Hendrik Hofmeyr. (Hofmeyr
2016) Hofmeyr lists the most disturbing of the errors that it contains, and finally judges it to be “virtually
 11

unusable as a pedagogical tool, owing to the dismayingly large number of errors it contains.” (Hofmeyr
2016: 100) As I have already indicated, there are numerous “music primers” (as Hofmeyr correctly
categorises Lucia’s work) that do the job efficiently, correctly, and using a wide range of musical
examples. There is no reason to use a book that is not also pedagogically sound when there are
numerous and far better local textbooks available.

Not one of the books that did not deal with the curriculum as envisaged by the DBE was approved for
use in schools; the reviewers obviously know the subject intimately enough to recognise when a book
would be more a hindrance than a help. The clear message to authors and publishers is that music is no
different to any other subject when it comes to setting standards for LTSM. It also indirectly sends a
clear message to future curriculum writers: if a curriculum is, for whatever reason, not teachable at all
schools in South Africa, and if it is close to impossible for experienced educational publishers to produce
the LTSM required, it needs rethinking.

Very few schools offer IAM or Jazz as a choice in Grades 10-12. Once again, this is an indictment of what
is being taught at universities, and the music graduates being produced, particularly at the University of
KwaZulu-Natal and at the University of Zululand, both situated in the province that boasts the largest
number of learners enrolled for Music in Grade 12. After considerable discussion with teachers and
examiners in authoritative positions, I was persuaded to head a team that could produce the magnum
opus required for Music in Grades 10-12. Having textbooks available for these grades now provides the
opportunity for both IAM and Jazz to be offered successfully, but that would depend on music teachers
being sent into the system with a thorough knowledge of what the curriculum demands and a set of
skills to match those demands. To withhold, for example, information about something as simple as staff
notation (or to suggest that the notation skills required by South African learners is somehow different
to that used internationally) when the school curriculum demands a basic knowledge of harmonic
function theory speaks of a peculiar short-sightedness, and perhaps also a lack of ability by the lecturers
concerned to provide a suitable methodology. It would be interesting to know whether Pooley himself
trains those teachers of the Gauteng Department of Education with whom he has come into contact to
use function theory successfully in their Grade 11-12 classes.

3. Resourcing music education within the school curriculum

The DBE regulates all basic education, which is defined as incorporating all education up to and including
level 4 of the National Qualifications Framework (NQF). The DBE is also responsible for all education at
so-called “private independent schools”, and all these schools follow the same basic curriculum as the
public schools. These schools may – as may all public schools – extend the content of the curriculum to
provide a greater depth of knowledge of specific subjects. Many of these schools also afford their
learners the opportunity to write examinations that are registered abroad, anticipating that many may
choose to study elsewhere.

Pooley lists the lack of resources within the rural schools, which (I deduce from his description; he does
not elucidate) are classified as “Quintile 1 schools” (catering for the poorest 20% of learners within a
province). In 2015, the number of learners in Quintile 1 schools was 3,194,248. (Administrator 2016)
Schools in Quintile 1 may not levy school fees. They annually receive a generous Government subsidy,
calculated per enrolled learner, which is known as the “School Allocation”. This subsidy is intended to
 12

cover non-personnel costs, including textbooks and other LTSM, required by the school. (Pandor 2006:
27ff) It is the responsibility of the school principal to allocate funds correctly, and to provide textbooks
for the learners under his/her care. The DBE makes provision for unforeseen influxes into individual
schools, and provides additional funds in such an eventuality. A lack of resources – and accepting that a
piano is not a basic resource but that a computer is, even for music learners – is therefore to be laid not
at the door of the DBE, but at the door of teachers who are not aware of available textbooks, and who
do not request them for their classes. Ultimately the teacher’s lack of knowledge can be traced back to
the institution where they received their own education and training.

As discussed above, the DBE has approved textbooks for every subject or learning area presented from
Grades R-12, and schools may purchase these from the school allocation of funds. It may be worth
noting that, in 2015, the total number of learners in public schools was 12,224,654, and only 566,194
learners (approximately 4,6%) were enrolled in private independent schools. (Administrator 2016) The
profile of the learners attending private independent schools is not provided, and it would be misleading
to infer that only one cultural and/or ethnic group is represented. Pooley implies not only that, but also
that there is a vast number of private independent schools that contribute to a growing inequality in
South African education. It represents a questionable (de)construction of the actual situation, and it may
be prudent to study the examination results released at the end of each year, where growing numbers
of learners from rural areas, with limited resources, but with dedicated teachers and attending
functional schools, are attaining remarkable results.

Research regarding those learners who offer music as a subject at Grade 12 level is long overdue. How
many of these learners, for example, continue to study music at tertiary level? Whether they do or do
not, why do they make that choice? How do they experience the level of the work offered at first-year
level with the work that they did in Grade 12? How do the two phases align with each other? And which
phase do they experience as being at a higher cognitive level?

It would also be fruitful to research which instruments are being offered for the practical component of
the examination, and how universities are coping with – or whether they are aware of – the learners’
choices.

Conclusion

Pooley finally calls for a review of a curriculum that is now (2017) in only its fourth year of
implementation. He bases this call on, as has been shown, many misconceptions and
misunderstandings of the South African education system, and in particular of music education.

Within the National Qualifications Framework (NQF) regular reviews of all qualifications and curricula
are required by law. The current curriculum statement is due for review in 2019/20.

The process followed will be a long and arduous one. The Minister will call on his/her advisors to
nominate people to serve on the steering committee, which will meet over a period to discuss the
general direction that the review should take. The direction to be followed will be common to all phases
and learning areas, and the process normally starts with the Foundation Phase review, followed in
succession by each of the other phases. In other words, the FET phase will always align the first term of
Grade 10 with the last term of Grade 9.
 13

It takes approximately 2-3 years to complete the initial work and for the different subcommittees to
agree on the curriculum to be implemented; in real-time terms, this can be expected to be completed
around 2021/22. These documents will then be published for public comment in the Government
Gazette. Comments that are received will be reviewed and either accepted or rejected; a final document
will be ready for the legal process about one year later, in 2022/23. Only at that stage will the DBE
request publishers to develop new LTSM, and will the criteria that need to be met for approval be
publicised. If the new curriculum is approved in 2022, publishers will most likely have until 2023 to
produce LTSM, and the approval process of the LTSM will most likely only conclude in 2024 at which
point the new LTSM catalogue will be published.

Normally, the implementation of a new curriculum is carefully managed to provide teachers ample
opportunity to receive additional training if required. One can therefore expect an implementation
timeframe of:
2025: Grades R/1; 4, 7 and 10
2026: Grades 2, 5, 8 and 11
2027: Grades 3, 6, 9 and 12

Universities and teachers are, therefore, clearly obliged to teach according to the current school
curriculum for at least another 8-10 years. Understanding this process fully, and understanding that
“music” is not some elusive holy grail, but a subject like any other, should make the universities’ tasks
far easier.

As has been shown throughout this article, the missing links in the articulation chain lie between the end
of the FET phase and the first year of tertiary education, and between the final year of tertiary studies
and the years of teaching. It is time to insist that universities align their courses with the Grade 12
curriculum and base their admission requirements on the work required to pass that examination, in
other words to apply the Recognition of Prior Learning policy (RPL) correctly. It is time for university
lecturers to show a greater knowledge of the South African education system and of the available LTSM,
especially when penning articles, or when engaging in what passes for “teacher training”.

One of the most important steps in this process would be for universities to prescribe textbooks, at the
very least for use in training music teachers. However, prescribing textbooks and engaging critically with
them seems to be an activity applicable only to courses followed by students who are trained to regard
themselves as future professionals, like advocates, engineers, doctors and chefs. While music lecturers
try to credit their own achievements to their own genius, and encourage their students to do the same
by not prescribing textbooks for their courses, music education in South Africa cannot and will not
change, and the attitude to music teachers as “non-professionals” will remain.

Finally, it would also not be amiss for university lecturers to produce a series of textbooks, or of online
lectures, to train music teachers throughout the country, but these need firstly to consider what is
already available. Encouraging students to engage critically, rather than emotionally, with available
textbooks is already a giant leap for musical humankind. What are the shortcomings of the current LTSM
for music? Do the music textbooks now available for Grades 10-12 address what students are expected
to know when they enter tertiary education? If not, what should be added? What content could be
expanded? What could be omitted? What should be amended? How do graduates envisage that
 14

learning about “music” will change in the next 10-20 years? How would this impact on their teaching
strategies? None of these questions can be addressed in any way without first engaging meaningfully
with the prescribed material.

One does not need a curriculum review to make a difference. One should simply teach what is required,
give input when requested, and encourage students to think critically. To separate university education
and teacher training from the requirements of the DBE is the best way to ensure that music is removed
as a school subject.

List of references
Administrator. 2016. Department of Basic Education. 11 1.
http://www.education.gov.za/Newsroom/ParliamentaryQuestions/2015ParliamentaryQuestion
s/tabid/954/ctl/Details/mid/3960/ItemID/3472/Default.aspx (Accessed 14 April 2017).

Department of Basic Education. 2015. Learning, teaching and support materials: National catalogues
2015.
http://www.education.gov.za/Curriculum/LearningandTeachingSupportMaterials(LTSM).aspx
(Accessed 14 April 2017).

Hofmeyr, H. Music notation: A South African guide. Journal of the musical arts in Africa 13 (1-2):99-103.

Mahajan, G. 1999. The Problem. Multiculturalism: A symposium on democracy in culturally diverse

societies. http://www.india-seminar.com/1999/484/484%20problem.htm (Accessed 14 April
2017).

Mitas, A. L. 2015. A critical comparison of the role and function of music education in the foundation
phase of the post-apartheid South African school curricula. Dissertation, Music, University of
Pretoria, Pretoria: University of Pretoria. http://repository.up.ac.za/handle/2263/46024.

Pandor, N. 2006. Amended National Norms and Standards for School Funding. Government Gazette.
29179. Vol. 869. Department of Education, August 31.
http://www.education.gov.za/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=6AyRj8cMwv8= (Accessed 14 April 2017).

Parekh, B. 1999. What is multiculturalism? Multiculturalism: A symposium on democracy in culturally

diverse societies. http://www.india-seminar.com/1999/484/484%20problem.htm (Accessed 14
April 2017).

Pooley, T. M. 2016. Extracurricular arts: poverty, inequality and indigenous musical arts education in
post-apartheid South Africa. Critical Arts 30 (5): 639-654.