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WHAT IS A SHEAF?
J. ARTHUR SEEBACH, JR., LINDA A. SEEBACH, AND LYNN A. STEEN,
St.OlafCollege
Ever since Jean Leray and Henri Cartan in 1950 formallyintroduced the
concept of a sheaf,the various examples and applications of sheaves have come
to play a major role in such diverse fieldsas several complexvariables, algebraic
geometry,and differentialand algebraic topology.Yet nearly all monographs
which use or introduce sheaves assume the sophistication of graduate level
algebraic topology. So it is very difficultforan undergraduateto acquire from
the available literaturea real understandingof sheaves and theirapplications.
It is the purpose of this article to introduce the theoryof sheaves at an ele-
mentary level with the hope that the interestedreader will then be able to
approach any of the standard treatises (e.g., [2], [3], [6], [10], or [11]) with
significantinsight.
Our avenue of approach to the theoryof sheaves will be throughexamples
drawn fromthreemajor areas of mathematics:fromanalysis, the sheafof germs
of holomorphicfunctions;fromalgebra, the sheafof local rings;and fromgeome-
try, the sheaf of differentialforms.We will develop each of these particular
sheaves in considerable detail, for the differentperspectivesthus revealed will
more readily make transparentthe subsequent discussion of the general theory
of sheaves.
1. The sheaf of germs of holomorphicfunctions.A holomorphic(or analytic)
functionon an open subset D of complex n-space C- is definedto be a complex
valued functionon D which has a local power series representationat each
point of D. Osgood's lemma [6, p. 2] asserts that a continuous functionon
DC C- is holomorphicifand only ifit is holomorphicin each variable separately.
A very important property of holomorphic functions is that they are
uniquely determinedby theirbehavior on open sets: iff and g are holomorphic
on a domain D (a domain is a connected open set), and iff equals g on a non-
empty open subset of D, thenf equals g on all of D. To see this,we need only
observe that the largest open subset of D on whichf = g is also closed (relative
to D), since the partial derivativeswhich determinethe power series expansion
are continuous. Since D is connected,this set must be D.
Now if Sz C- we say thatf is holomorphicat z if it is holomorphicon some
neighborhoodof z. The collection A, of functionsholomorphicat z formsan
algebra over the fieldof complex numbersin which the operations of sum and
ProfessorSteenreceivedhis Ph.D. in 1965 underKennethHoffman See-
at M.I.T.; Professor
bach receivedhis Ph.D. in 1968underA. I. Weinzweigat Northwestern;hiswifeLinda Seebach
Steenand Seebach
Professors
is a Ph.D. candidateunderDaniel Zelinsky,also at Northwvestern.
in Topology.
are the authors of the recentlypublished Counterexamnples
The paper printedherewas derivedfroma seriesof lecturespresentedby the authorsat a
weeklyjointcolloquiumofthemathematics staffsofSt. Olafand CarletonColleges,bothlocated
in Northfield,
Minnesota.Editor.
681
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682 J. ARTHUR SEEBACH, JR., LINDA A. SEEBACH, AND LYNN A. STEEN [September
S
S
r ~~~~z
FIG. 1
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19701 WHAT IS A SHEAF? 683
r)U2j [fi]Z= [f2]Z} and f=fi Iu=f2l u. Thus the sets V(f, U) forma basis for a
topology on S, and relative to this topology,the projectionp is a local homeo-
morphism.That is, foreach basis neighborhoodV(f, U) in S, theone-to-onemap
PI vU,U) is a homeomorphismonto U. For if we let pf,udenote PI vU,U), and if N
is an open subset of U, then p7j(N)= V(f, N) which is open in S, while if
V(f, U') C V(f, U), thenpf,u(V(f, U')) U'. The topologyon S is uniquelydeter-
mined by the requirementthat the projection p be a local homeomorphism.
This topological space S, togetherwith the local homeomorphismp which
projects S onto C-, is called the sheafofgermsof holomorphic functionsover the
base space C". As the agriculturalterminologyimplies,we thinkof the sheaf as
a bundle of stalks (Fig. 2), each with a fullhead of germs(or, if you wish,seeds,
or grain).
I D
FIG. 2
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684 J. ARTHUR SEEBACH, JR., LINDA A. SEEBACH, AND LYNN A. STEEN [September
_~~~
C"
FIG. 3
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1970] WHAT IS A SHEAF? 685
D go..C
f
FIG. 4
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686 J. ARTHUR SEEBACH, JR., LINDA A. SEEBACH, AND LYNN A. STEEN [September
we definean equivalence relation (a, s)r--(b,t) if and only if there exists rEES
such that (at-bs)r = 0. We also definetwo operations,
(a, s) + (b, t) = (at + bs, st) and (a, s)(b, t) = (ab, st),
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1970] WHAT IS A SHEAF? 687
ideal. For most rings,therefore,the base space is not even T1; however,Spec A
is always To.
It is possible to definea ringof quotients with respect to the complementof
a primeP because it is multiplicativelyclosed, but the complementof a union
of primes is also multiplicativelyclosed. Hence, with each nonemptyopen set
U in Spec A we may associate the ring of quotients Au = { a/s IPEE U=s ErP }
whose set of denominatorsis the complementof the union of all the primes in
U. If U and V are open sets in Spec A such that UC V, we may definerestriction
homomorphisms pu,v:Av-?Au as follows:if a/sGAv, s is not an element of any
prime ideal P in V, and so a fortiorinot an element of any primeideal P in U.
Hence a/s is also an element of Au. We definepu,v(a/s) = a/s, but this map is
not the identity,or even one-to-one,since the equivalence classes which are
used to definethe ringAu are largerthan those used to defineAv. The kernelof
Pu,v consistsof those elementsa/s such that a is a zero divisorwithrespectto an
elementin one of the primeideals of V whichis not in any elementof U.
An importantpropertyof pu,v is the commutativityof the diagram in Fig.
5, where au:A->Au takes a to a/i. Now pu, is uniquely determinedby this
propertyand from this it follows that pu,u is the identity map and that if
UC VC W, then pu,w=pu,v o pv,w.This system,consistingof Spec A, the rings
Au, and maps pu,v:Av->Au when UC V, is called a presheafover Spec A.
Besides the maps pujv correspondingto pairs of open sets forwhich UC V, we
AvyA
A Pu.v A/PV
A ~~ ~~~A
FIG. S FIG. 6
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688 J. ARTHUR SEEBACH, JR., LINDA A. SEEBACH, AND LYNN A. STEEN [September
If uEAu, either the functionu or its image u(U) in S is called a sectionof the
presheaf.The set of sectionsu(U) covers S, forifa/sEAp thens is a denomina-
torin Av, whereV {QIs EfQ}, and a/sEAv is a sectionover V whoseimage
at P is a/s.
The collectionof all these sections u(U) is a basis fora topologyon S, since
the intersectionof two sections is a union of sections. For, suppose uEAu
and vEAv are sectionsover the open sets U and V. If u(U)Cv(V) = 0 thereis
nothingto show. If xEu( U)flv(V), x pP,u(v) =pP,v(v) EAp forsome PE UN V.
Then u a/s, wheres is not an elementof any elementof U, and v = a'/s', where
s' is not an element of any element of V. Since a/s a'/s' in Ap, there exists
t*EP such that t(as'-a's) = 0. Let W-= QItd(Q}. Then a/s= a'/s' in Awu,v
and, since the diagram in Fig. 7 commutes,the section over Wn UN V defined
by a/s=a'/s' is a subset of u(U) and of v(V) and it is a neighborhoodof x.
AV
Awn)unv _ Ap
Au
FIG. 7
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1970] WHAT IS A SHEAF? 689
IM
FIG. 8
p(X) = p@f(tD.. ,
f(tn)) = 4.(p(i 1) i... ,
p(n)) 0( ==
q'OM
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690 J. ARTHUR SEEBACH, JR., LINDA A. SEEBACH, AND LYNN A. STEEN [September
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1970] WHAT IS A SHEAF? 691
(z, 0) and (0, w) are the ideals (p(x), y) and ((x), q(y)) where p is the minimal
polynomialof z (and q of w). These ideals togetherwith (x) and (y) are pre-
cisely the points of Spec A.
The points of ECC2 are divided into equivalence classes correspondingto
the ideals in Spec A: to each of (x) and (y) there correspondsa class of tran-
scendental points,while to each maximal ideal (p(xc),y) (wherep is irreducible)
there correspondsthe set of algebraic points I (z, 0) } where z is a root of p.
In the topology induced on E by Spec A, the closure of a transcendental
point (z, 0) is the z-axis and the closure of an algebraic point (z, 0) is all (z', 0)
where z' is also a root of the minimalpolynomialof z. A basis forthe open sets
in Spec A is the collection of all sets of the form V P{PESpec A I pEP . In
the special case p=
Ay= Q(x).
For the local ringat a maximal prime other than (x?,y), forinstance P= (x1
y2-2), a similar willlead to theringAp= {p/qEQ(y)I
argument (y2-2) does
not divide q }. That is, AP contains inversesforall functionsthat do not vanish
at (0, V/2),while two polynomialsin x and y which agree on an open set con-
taining(0, V/2)are identifiedin Ap. Thus the map a:A-+Ap is neitherone-to-
one nor onto. Now if P = (x, y), the set of denominatorsforAp is exactly the
set of polynomials
pl+p2-C forc # 0. So in thiscase the map a: A-Ap is an
inclusionwhich is not onto.
Finally, we describe the ringsof presheafsections Au, foropen sets U. If U
is the complement of a finiteclosed set of maximal primes (x, pi(y)), * *
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692 J. ARTHUR SEEBACH, JR., LINDA A. SEEBACH, AND LYNN A. STEEN [September
Au = {p(x)/xnI p E Q[x]}.
Since A(9)-Q(x), the map p(,),U:AU-*A(y) fromthe ringof sections to the stalk
at (y) is one-to-onebut not onto. For a maximal prime(y,p) E Vg,wherep (x) O x,
p(y,p),u:Au--)A(y,p)is an inclusionsince x does not divide p. If U is the comple-
mentof the closed set (x, pi(y)), * *(, pk(y)), then VgC U, and the re-
strictionmap pvg,u:Au-+Avg has kernel (y).
The ring of sections over Spec A is A, for every element of A vanishes at
some point in Spec A. Thus for every kind of open set U in Spec A, the ele-
ments of the rings Au are the rational functionsdefinedat every point of U.
In particularthe functionsx and x+y are sections on the open set Spec A.
They agree on the properopen subset Vg,for (y) is the kernelof the restriction
map pvg,Spec A, but do not agree on (x, y), whichis in the closureof Vg. Thus the
points x and x+y in A(g,y though distinct, cannot be separated by sections
since any open set containing (x, y) must intersectVg. Thus this sheaf fails to
be Hausdorffboth verticallyas well as horizontally.
forms.Let p EX whereX is a Cc?manifoldover
3. The sheaf of differential
Rn.We denote by C7' the set of all functionsfromX to the real line RI whichare
Cc?in some neighborhoodof p. Clearly Cp1is a vector space over R in which the
sumf+g is definedon the intersectionof the domains off and g.
A tangentto X at p is a linear functiont: Cp ->R such that
t(fg) = t(g)*g(p) + f(p) *t(g) wheneverf, g E Cpi.
The set of all tangentsto X at p formsa vector space over R which we call Xp,
the tangentspace to X at p. If 'y: [0, 1]->X is a Cc?functionsuch that #y(to) =p,
and iffE Cp, then f o y: [0, 1 ]XR. If (f o y)' is the derivative of f o0,
the function *: Cp;-Rl definedby y*(f) (f oy)'(to) is a tangent.To interpret
thisgeometrically,we considera particularlocal coordinatesystem(UUp, 7rp)where
trp:Up-+Rn.If 7 :Rn-->R1 is the projection functiondefinedby 7ri(ti,* * *, tn)
=ti, we write xi=iri o07rp; then 7rp(p)=(xi(p), * * *, x,(p))CRn. If es
= (0, 0, * * *, 1, * * *, O)ERn, we think of the curve y(t) =w7r71(7rp(p)+tei) as
the ith coordinate axis in Up since (d/dt)(rp o y) o = ei. Then the tangent y*
satisfies
d
Y*(f = (fo? y)'(0) = -(f o 7r'o1 0 ,rp
o Y)
dl 0
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1970] WHAT IS A SHEAF? 693
0 (fo
(f r-1) a(fo r1)) e a(fo r;)
ad1t, atn J ., (p) t p (P)
'Y*~ ai
Ox;
then 'y*(f)is a 'grad f, that is, the derivative off in the directiona (al,
an) ERn.
Xp
FIG. 9
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694 J. ARTHUR SEEBACH, JR., LINDA A. SEEBACH, AND LYNN A. STEEN [September
dxi1A . . . A dx*,
where 8=1 if (i1, , ik) =(ji, , jk) and 0 otherwise. The set of all k-
linear formson X, is an nnkdimensional vector space over R and the nk forms
dxi,A * * * Adxi,, where ije {I1, , n}, forma basis for this vector space.
The set of differential k-formsis a subspace of the set of all k-linearformsand it
has as a basis the k-linearformsdxilA .. . Adxik where ij <i2< ... <ik. We
call such a sequence of indices an increasingk-tuple.Thus the dimensionof the
space ofdifferential k-formsis(t) ifk ?n and 0 ifk>n.
Let Sk denote the set of all increasingk-tuplesof positive integersless than
or equal to n. For xeSk we denote by dx, the k-formdxi,A . . . Adxi,, where
s = (i1, * * *, i*). Now let UCX be an open set and 0 a functionwhichassigns to
each pE U a differentialk-format p, 6(p). Thus, once having chosen a local
coordinate system at p, so the formsdxl, dx2,... dxnare defined,we may ,
write
O(p) = E a,(p)dx,,
*eSk
whereeach a,(p) is the coefficientin the expansion of 0(p) in termsof the basis
{dxs}lsE.k* Thus as may be considered as a functionfrom U to RI. Since each
k-format p, we call 0 a C' k-formon U ifeach functiona. is
0(p) is a differential
Coo; we denote by Qk(U) the real vector space of all CIOk-formson U. If UC V
then there is a linear transformationpU,V:2k(V)- >Qk(U) definedby restriction
of the domains of 0(=2k(V). The collection {Qk(U) } for U open in X together
with the linear transformationspu,vis called the presheafofdifferentialk-forms.
Since every paracompact manifoldhas a CX partitionof unity subordinate
to anyopencovering{ U4m
} [8,p. 85], presheavesoversuchmanifoldssatisfythe
followingspecial property: If U= U U,,where Ua is open in X, and if0ayE3-k(Ua)
are coherent in the sense that the restrictionsto UaCnUp of 0atand Opagree
(whenever Uan Up50) then there exists a unique 0EEQk(U) whose restriction
to each Ua is 0a. Certainlyif {fa} is a C* partitionof unityfor { U,,,}so that
vanishes off Ua, and Ef,, = 1; so we may define 0 to be E2faoa.
.f,: U-?+R', fG,
Any such presheafis called a sheaf, so when X is paracompact, we will call
thesystem{I k(U), pU,V} the sheafofdifferential k-forms. If Qk (p) is the set of
differentialk-formsat p, we may think of Qk (p) as the stalks of the sheaf S:
S = U,,ExEk(p). The projection p: S--*X assigns to each differentialform at p
the point p. The C* k-form0EQk(U) is a section of S, and the collection
{ 0(U) CSI U is openinX } formsa basisforthetopologyon S.
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1970] WIIAT IS A SHEAF? 695
FiG. 10
}
2. If I U,, Itsa familyof opensetsin X, if U = U U,,,and 'if the sections
sa E F( U,,) are coherentin the sense thatthe restrictionsof s,, and sp to UaC\n
U#
agree (i.e., ifpu.u,u,,U(s,,)
= whenever-UaC\U#0 0) thenthereexists
pu.-,u,,u,(s#)
a sections C-F( U) such thatfor each a, pua,u (s) = Sf1.
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696 J. ARTHUR SEEBACH, JR., LINDA A. SEEBACH, AND LYNN A. STEEN [September
DEFINITION II. Let (X, r) be a topological space, and let eDbe a class of
similarmathematicalobjects (e.g., abelian groups,modules,rings). A sheafover
X is a triple {S, ir,X}, where S is a topological space and 7r:S-*X is a local
homeomorphism(i.e., a map such that each point pETS has a neighborhood U
on which rIu is a homeomorphism)such that each stalk 7r-'(x) EE , and each
operation is continuous as a function from U,x(7r-N(x)XKr-1(x)) (with the
topology induced fromSXS) to U,r=xr-(x) =S.
We shall call a sheaf of type I a sheaf of sections,and a sheaf of type II a
sheafofgerms.The relationshipbetween these two types of sheaves is precisely
as illustratedby the precedingexamples.
To be specific,suppose F is a presheaf (of sections) over W; we construct
the correspondingsheaf of germs by defininga germ at xCX to be an equiva-
lence class of Ax=UXeuF(U) under the relation s=F(U)-tGF(V) if pw,u(s)
-Pw,(t) for some WC Ur) V. Thus the germ of a section sEF(U) at a point
x E U is the collectionof all sections tC=F( V) which agree with s on some neigh-
borhood V of x. We denote, as usual, the germof s at x by [sJ.,and let the stalk
space S be { (x, [s ].,)Is F(U), where x U }. The topology on S is generated
by neighborhoodsof the form V(s, U) { (x, [s]j xCEU}, so the projection
-r:S->X becomes a local homeomorphism.By interpretingthe sections as
functions,the so-called restrictionmaps Pu,v really are restrictionsand the
topology on S is the strongestrelative to which the sections are continuous.
(The topology on S can also be characterized as the quotient of the topology
on Uue= (UX F(U)) under the equivalence relation induced by , where each
U carries the subspace topology and F(U) is discrete.)
Each stalk 7r-'(x) clearly inheritsthe operations of the F(U) and each such
operation is continuous. For example, if each F(U) is an abelian group under
addition and if [s], and [t]rE7r-'(x), then [s]z+ [t], is definedto be [s+t]x. If
V(s+t, U) is a neighborhoodof [s+t],, then the inverse image of V(s+t, U)
under + contains { (r, q) IrE V(s, U), qE V(t, U), ir(r)=r(q) }, an open set in
UEx(7r-1(x) X7r-1(x)). Thus {S, 7r,X} is indeed a sheaf of germs.
Conversely,suppose {S, 7r,X } is a sheaf of germs (perhaps one constructed
as above fromsome presheaf). If U is open in X, let F(U) be the collection of
continuousfunctionss: U-*F such that iro s is the identityon U. F( U) inherits
the algebraic structurefrom the stalks by pointwise definitions,and the re-
strictionmaps Pu.v are just that-the restrictionof s from V to the subset U.
The firstcoherenceaxiom forsheaves is satisfiedtriviallysince the sections are
functions,and the second is satisfiedsince the F(U) contain all continuous func-
tions from U to F which are inversesof ir.
Now if { F, xr,X} is a sheaf of germs,the sheaf derived fromits (pre)sheaf
of sectionsis canonicallyisomorphicto F. However, if S is a presheafof sections,
the presheafof sections S' associated with the sheaf of germsderived fromS is
generallydifferent fromS, forsince S' is a sheaf,it may have moresections than
S (in order to satisfythe second coherenceaxiom), while some sections which
were distinctin S may be identifiedin S' (because of the firstaxiom). Of course,
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1970] WHAT IS A SHEAF? 697
.
-_ F(W2) _ F(V1nV2)
PV2,W2 Pv1-V2,V2
FIG. 11
The direct limit of this system is, roughlyspeaking, the firstobject which
can appear to the right of the diagram. Specifically, an object F. together
with maps pu:F(U)-*Fx for each F(U) is called a directlimit of the system
({ F(U) }xeu, {Ipu,v}xucv) provided that
(i) whenever UC V the diagram in Fig. 12 commutes,
(ii) F. is universal with respect to property (i)-that is, if (Gx, {Io,}) also
satisfiesproperty (i), then there exists a unique map q: F.--G. such that for
each u: F( U)>Gx, 0u=l o pu.
Pv
F(V) - s F.
F(U)
FIG. 12
Condition (i) makes explicit the idea of "appearing on the rightof the dia-
gram" while condition (ii) asserts that F- is the firstsuch object. It follows
triviallyfromthese conditions that the direct limit is unique (up to isomor-
phism), so we denote it by LimxeuF(U).
Consider now the stalk of germs at x derived from the presheaf F. If Pu
denotes the map from F(U) to the stalk 7r-'(x) defined by pu(s)=(x, [s]x)
(wherexE U), then 7r-'(x) ='zXeuF(U) since wheneverxE UC V, pv Pu 0 pu,v
and 7r-'(x) is universal with respect to that property.To prove this last asser-
tion we assume that (G, {au}) is another direct limit and observe that if both
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698 J. ARTHUR SEEBACH, JR., LINDA A. SEEBACH, AND LYNN A. STEEN [September
EF(U1) and t2E F( U2) are in thesame germ[s]., thenaOU,(ti) = aU2(t2), forby
t1e
the definitionof [s],, thereexists some VC Uln U2such that pv,u1(t) =pv,u2(t2).
Then by the commutativityof the diagram in Fig. 13, we have
aU1(t1) = av O Pv,U1(tl) = O.V 0 PV,U2(t2) = SU2(t2)
F(UM) PPe
F(V)
F(U2) -(
Pu2
FIG. 13
Thus each element [s]r of ir-'(x) is mapped to some point of G by the appropri-
ate au o pul: we call thispoint -(x, [s],) and therebydefinethe required unique
map from7r-'(x) to G.
So we may summarize all three approaches in one sweeping generalization:
foreach xEX, the stalk over x of the sheaf of germsis the direct limit of the
restrictionof the presheafto the neighborhoodsof x.
We close this section with a fourthcharacterizationof sheaves, this one also
based on a universal property,and illustrated to some extent in the previous
examples. Suppose 53is a class of functionsdefinedon open subsets of a topologi-
cal space X. If F(U) is the collection of all f E5 whose domain is U, and if
pu,vis the restrictionmap (i.e., puyv(f)=f Iu whenever UC V and f F(V)), the
collection { F( U), Pu.v} is a presheaf.If this presheafis a sheaf S (as it will be if
f is the set of holomorphicfunctionson open subsets of Cn,or the set of differ-
ential formson open subsets of a paracompact manifoldX) then we can definea
universal continuous function1: S-*R of type ff so that each f EF(U) factors
uniquely throughthe sheaf S: that is, there exists a unique 7: U-S such that
J=(Pof.
In general,any object S and map Ib:S-*R with the propertythat each func-
tion f: U-*R factorsuniquely throughS via 4Dis called universal with respect
to the characterizingpropertiesof the functionsf. The pair (S, b) is uniquely
determined(up to isomorphism)by this property.Thus, forinstance,the sheaf
of holomorphicfunctionsis characterizedby being the unique universal object
forthe familyof holomorphicfunctions.
J
Since I-'(V(f, U)) = U, is continuous. Thus sheaves transforma compli-
cated propertyof functions,such as analyticity,into the simplerone of continu-
ity,forthe topologyon the sheaf is chosen preciselyso that a continuoussection
on U (i.e., an element of F(U)) corresponds to one of the specialized (e.g.,
analytic, differentiable)functionsof F(U).
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19701 WHAT IS A SHEAF? 699
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700 J. ARTHUR SEEBACH, JR., LINDA A. SEEBACH, AND LYNN A. STEEN [September
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1970] WHAT IS A SHEAF? 701
quotient sheaf G/F. The existence of the long exact sequence is the major rea-
son forthe usefulnessof cohomology,forthe 0-dimensionalgroups which begin
the sequence are the groups of global sections,while the highergroups by their
constructionreflectthe local propertiesof X.
For instance,if we take F to be the sheaf of germsof holomorphicfunctions
on a complex manifold X, and G to be the sheaf of germs of meromorphic
functions,then F is a subsheaf of G, and the global sections of the quotient
sheaf G/F can be interpretedas the data of the firstCousin problem,since each
section describes the behavior of a functionnear its poles [9, p. 161]. Thus,
since this problemasks whetherthereexists a functionmeromorphicon X with
such poles, the firstCousin problem may be interpretedas asking whetherthe
last map in the sequence 0-?Fx--->Gx-->(G/F)xis onto. This sequence is the
beginningof the long exact cohomologysequence, and the next group in that
sequence is H' (X, F). The Cartan-Oka result is that Hq(X, F) =0 for all q ?1
if X is a Stein manifold,a class of manifoldswith "sufficientlymany" holo-
morphic functions,which includes all Riemann surfaces which are connected
and non-compact. In addition to proving this result, Cartan [1953] and Serre
[1953] give otherapplications of the fundamentaltheoremsfora Stein manifold
X:
THEOREM A. For everycoherentanalytic sheaf S overX, HO(X, S), whichis
themoduleofglobalcrosssectionsSx, generatesthestalkS=foreveryx GX.
analyticsheafS overX and q ? 1,
THEOREM B. For everycoherent
Hq(X, S) = 0.
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702 J. ARTHUR SEEBACH, JR., LINDA A. SEEBACH, AND LYNN A. STEEN [September
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1970] ON THE FOUNDATIONS OF SET THEORY 703
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