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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction

Child labour refers to the employment of children in any work that

deprives them of their childhood, interferes with their ability to attend regular

school, and that is mentally, physically, socially or morally dangerous and

harmful. There is a complete ban on work and not just on the 18 occupations

and 65 processes. No schedule of hazardous occupations and processes where

an adolescent cannot work. Schedule of hazardous processes and occupations

provided where an adolescent cannot work.

Children involved in child labour are more likely to experience worse

health outcomes also later in life. The impact of hazardous work can cause

profound and long-lasting health problems that may only become evident in

adulthood. This makes them difficult to measure or even prove. Cancer, infertility

and chronic backpain are just some of the possible long-term negative health

outcomes. The consequences are worsened by poverty and the lack of efficient

health and social security schemes.

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1.2 Objectives

 To influence public policy on child labour issues through an increased

understanding of the impact of work on children’s health, the quality of

their lives, and their ability to produce effectively in jobs as adults, as well

as increase recognition of how child labour exploitation reinforces and

promotes poverty, adult unemployment, poor living standards, low literacy

rates, and lax enforcement of labour regulations;

 To work for strengthened protections, guarding youth from excessive,

inappropriate, and hazardous labour;

 To advocate for better enforcement of child labour laws and regulations,

including devising and encouraging innovative ways to ensure employer

compliance;

 To educate the public, business, and governments to broaden awareness

and understanding about the nature of child labour exploitation in the

United States and other countries, and how it differs from legitimate and

positive youth employment; and

 To urge the Congress of the United States to act quickly to ratify and

enforce all the International Labour Organization and United Nations

Conventions that affect child labour.

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1.3 Outlines of the Paper

This paper is composed of five chapters. Firstly, chapter one introduces

the paper and describes the introduction and objectives of this paper. Chapter

two discusses about background of causes of child labour. Furthermore chapter

three present child labour protections in some countries and then the

consequences of child labour are explained in chapter four. Finally chapter five

consists conclusion and recommendation of this paper. References of the paper

are given after the chapter five.

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CHAPTER -2

CAUSES OF CHILD LABOUR

2.1 Introduction Causes of Child Labour

Child labour and exploitation are the result of many factors, including

poverty, social norms condoning them, lack of decent work opportunities for

adults and adolescents, migration and emergencies. These factors are not only

the cause but also a consequence of social inequities reinforced by

discrimination.

Child labour deprives children of their right to go to school and reinforces

intergenerational cycles of poverty. According to data from Census 2011, the

number of child labourers in India is 10.1 million of which 5.6 million are boys

and 4.5 million are girls.

2.2 The Main Reason of Child Labour

Below are some of the root causes which make children particularly

vulnerable to child labour

 Poverty

 Lack of access to quality education

 Poor access to decent work

 Limited understanding of child labour

 Natural disasters & climate change

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 Conflicts & mass migration

 Fighting child labour

Various causes of child labour like the curse of poverty, lack of educational

resources, Social and economic backwardness, Addiction, disease or disability,

the lure of cheap labour, Family tradition, Discrimination between boys and girls.

2.3 What are effects of child labour?

The consequences are staggering. Child labour can result in extreme

bodily and mental harm, and even death. It can lead to slavery and sexual or

economic exploitation. And in nearly every case, it cuts children off from

schooling and health care, restricting their fundamental rights and threatening

their futures;

 Leaving a place of poverty to gain wealth. Many victims want to get out of

their situation so they risk everything to leave the place that sees them mired

in poverty

 Political conditions

 War

 Social and Cultural practices

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2.4 Gendered Dimension of Child Labour

The Gender Inequality Index is a composite measure reflecting inequality

in achievements between The GII is a composite measure, reflecting inequality in

achievements between women and men in three dimensions: reproductive

health, empowerment and the labour market. Gender-related judicial integrity

issues take many forms, including sextortion, sexual harassment, sexual

discrimination, gender bias, unequal gender representation, gender stereotyping,

or inappropriate sexual conduct.

Adding to the argument about social attitudes being responsible for child

labour, Neera Berra emphasized the importance of expanding the definition of

child labour beyond wage labour. She pointed out that the contribution of girls

to the household economy is often unpaid and unrecognized. Their labour goes

entirely unacknowledged and there is practically no effort to send them to school

because of long-standing stereotypes and norms that perpetuate gender

discrimination.

It can be argued from one universalist perspective that those parents, who

believe that girls need to be socialized into their adult roles as children and that

formal education has no meaning for them, suffer from false consciousness.

Social and historical circumstances determine the range of choices that

communities, families and individuals are presented with and it is possible to

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keep adding to the list of what many would consider indefensible like, for

instance, the practice of child marriage in India or the practice of female

circumcision in Africa.

Gender equality prevents violence against women and girls. It's essential

for economic prosperity. Societies that value women and men as equal are safer

and healthier. Gender equality is a human right.

2.5 What are the origins of child labour?

Child labour first became a federal legislative issue at least as far back as

1906 with the introduction of the Beveridge proposal for regulation of the types

of work in which children might be engaged. Child labour is a phenomenon that

has existed since humans developed farming techniques. In the early history of

child labour, families needed extra hands to do chores and would naturally pass

off work to their children. But child labour is not just a child’s assisting their

parents with tasks necessary for survival and prosperity. In order to tell the

history of child labour, it is important to define it first.

Eliminating child exploitation involves understanding the nature and origin

of the same. Until the end of the 18th century, childhood was acknowledged to a

certain extent depending on the historical context.

During peaceful periods and, with the exception of practices such as

slavery, childhood was divided into different stages. Children under eight in

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Ancient Rome were considered infants, after which they officially entered

adulthood. Even in the middle Ages in the West, there was a certain respect for

childhood.

Although child labour did exist, it tended to be limited to the family core,

as a process of initiation into professional tasks. It would normally be

proportional to their condition and was accepted by the family.

Child labour first started to occur in England when household businesses

were turned into local labour markets that mass-produced the once homemade

goods. Because children often helped produce the goods out of their homes,

working in a factory to make those same goods was a simple change for many of

these youths.

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CHAPTER 3

CHILD LABOUR PROTECTION IN SOME COUNTRIES

3.1 Introduce Child Labour Protection in Some Countries

There are some industries such as the bangle making industry, where

delicate hands and little fingers are needed to do very minute work with

extreme excellence and precision. An adults hands are usually not so delicate

and small, so they require children to work for them and do such a dangerous

work with glass. This often resulted in eye accidents of the children. Cybercrime

can cause direct harm or indirect harm to whoever the victim is.

3.2 Current Scenerio of Child Labour

India is one of the leading countries in Asia has a 33 million children

employed in various forms of child labour .It is shocking that world's largest

democracy is yet to ratify the Minimum age convention 1973 (No 138) of the

International labour organization (ILO) that lays down ground rules for

employment of minors across the globe.

World day against child labour on June 12 is an ILO sanctioned holiday

first launched in 2002 with the objective to raise awareness and activism to

prevent child labour under the above convention .An estimated 150 million

children are involved in child labour worldwide as per UNICEF data. The child

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labour is not an isolated phenomenon it is coupled with socio economic problem

of the society so in order to eliminate child labour first we should focus on socio

economic issues of the society. It is in the hands of administrative .It should

bring effective measures to eliminate child labour.

Cybercrime is criminal activity that either targets or uses a computer, a

computer network or a networked device. Most, but not all, cybercrime is

committed by cybercriminals or hackers who want to make money. Cybercrime is

carried out by individuals or organizations. Some cybercriminals are organized,

use advanced techniques and are highly technically skilled. Others are novice

hackers. Rarely, cybercrime aims to damage computers for reasons other than

profit. These could be political or personal.

3.3 Child Labour Protection in India

Policies and the recognition of human rights and child rights. We have

moved from common law doctrines, which unfortunately favoured the powerful,

to a rights-based approach. Whatever welfare happened to vulnerable

communities, including their children, depending on the dominant sections of

society’s generosity and mercy.

The Constitution of India, which came into effect on 26 th January 1950,

guarantees children’s rights. The right to free and compulsory elementary

education for all children in the age group 6-14 years. The right to be protected

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from any hazardous employment until 14 years. Further children have equal

rights as all other adult citizens of India. Few among them are right to equality,

right to personal liberty and the process of law, right to being protected from

being trafficked and forced into bonded labour etc. Child protection laws in India

are framed in line with constitutional provisions for safeguarding child

rights. More than 250 statutes in India passed by the Union and State

Governments, deal with children.

In addition to these child protection laws, we have several criminal laws

which give protection to children. These statutes include the Indian Penal Code,

1860, Indian Evidence Act, 1872 and Criminal Procedure Code, 1973.

3.4 Status of Child Labour in India

 Child labour refers to the employment of children in any work that

deprives them of their childhood, interferes with their ability to attend

regular school, and that is mentally, physically, socially or morally

dangerous and harmful.

 The Census of India 2011 reports 10.1 million working children in the

age group of 5-14 years, out of whom 8.1 million are in rural areas

mainly engaged as cultivators (26%) and agricultural labourers

(32.9%).

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3.5 Child Labour: Constitutional And Legal Provsions

 According to Article 23 of the Indian Constitution any type of forced

labour is prohibited.

 Article 24 states that a child under 14 years cannot be employed to

perform any hazardous work.

 Article 39 states that “the health and strength of workers, men and

women, and the tender age of children are not abused”.

 In the same manner, Child Labour Act (Prohibition and Regulation)

1986 prohibits children under the age of 14 years to be working in

hazardous industries and processes.

 Policy interventions such as MGNREGA 2005, the Right to Education Act

2009 and the Mid Day Meal Scheme have paved the way for children to

be in schools along with guaranteed wage employment (unskilled) for

rural families.

 Further, with the ratification International Labour Organization

Conventions Nos. 138 and 182 in 2017, the Indian government has

demonstrated its commitment to the elimination of child labour

including those engaged in hazardous occupations.

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3.6 Child Labour Protection in Barazil

Child labour, the practice of employing children under the legal age set by

a government, is considered one of Brazil's most significant social issues.

According to data from the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE),

more than 2.7 million minors between the ages of 5 and 17 worked in the

country in 2015; 79,000 were between the ages of 5 and 9. Under Brazilian law,

16 is the minimum age to enter the labour market and 14 is the minimum age to

work as an apprentice.

It is estimated that about 30 percent of Brazilian child labour occurs in the

agricultural sector, and 60 percent occurs in the northern and northeastern

regions of the country. Data indicates that 65 percent of child labourers are Afro-

Brazilians, and 70 percent are male.

According to the International Labour Organization (ILO), poverty is the

leading cause of child labour in the world (including Brazil). Children are forced

to work to supplement family income, eliminating their studies and social lives.

Since the enactment of the 1988 constitution, child labour has been illegal in the

country. The government has taken steps to reduce its prevalence by adopting

international conventions and guidelines.

Social movements were created to increase awareness of child labour in

Brazil, such as the introduction. Other steps included changes to labour laws and

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increased funding for government welfare programs, such as Bolsa Família,

which support impoverished families. As a result, the number of underage

workers fell from about eight million in 1992 to five million in 2003.

Despite these improvements, Brazil still accounts for one-fourth of Latin

America's underage workers in. Between 2014 and 2015, there was a 13-percent

increase in the number of reported child workers under age 10. In 2016, there

were 1,238 cases of child exploitation recorded in the public prosecutor's office.

However, many instances of child labour in the informal economy (such as child

prostitution or drug trafficking) went unrecorded.

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CHAPTER 4

THE CONSEQUENCES OF CHILD LABOUR

4.1 Introduce the Consequences of Child Labour

Child labour can result in extreme bodily and mental harm, and even

death. It can lead to slavery and sexual or economic exploitation. And in nearly

every case, it cuts children off from schooling and health care, restricting their

fundamental rights and threatening their futures.

The consequences are staggering. Child labour can result in extreme

bodily and mental harm, and even death. It can lead to slavery and sexual or

economic exploitation. And in nearly every case, it cuts children off from

schooling and health care, restricting their fundamental rights and threatening

their futures.

Child labour affects not only the lifelong outcomes of the working child, it

also affects the working child’s siblings and other family members. More broadly,

a high incidence of child labour has a cost for the economy as a whole by

favouring unskilled labour over increased investment in human capital and

slowing down the diffusion of technologies that require skilled workers. The

expansion of international trade and enticement of foreign investments may also

be affected as the export and import sectors are mainly composed of relatively

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skilled workers. While there are potential positives from child labour in terms of

consumption support and on-the-job experience accumulation, most of the

evidence reviewed highlights that working while young is costly for both the child

and the child’s country.

4.2 The Negative Effects of Child Labour

Child labour was found to be associated with a number of adverse health

outcomes, including but not limited to poor growth, malnutrition, higher

incidence of infectious and system-specific diseases, behavioral and emotional

disorders, and decreased coping efficacy.

Poor children and their families may rely upon child labour in order to

improve their chances of attaining basic necessities. More than one-fourth of the

world's people live in extreme poverty, according to 2005 U.N. statistics. The

intensified poverty in parts of Africa, Asia, and Latin America causes many

children there to become child labourers.

Child labour laws around the world are often not enforced or include

exemptions that allow for child labour to persist in certain sectors, such as

agriculture or domestic work. Even in countries where strong child labour laws

exist, labour departments and labour inspection offices are often under-funded

and under-staffed, or courts may fail to enforce the laws. Similarly, many state

governments allocate few resources to enforcing child labour laws.

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There are a number of ways that child labour can affect children, and

these can vary depending on which industry the child is working in. Generally,

child labourers can suffer from long-term health problems due to malnutrition,

exposure to chemicals, abuse, injuries, exhaustion and psychological harm;

 In agriculture, children may be exposed to toxic pesticides or fertilizers.

They work with dangerous blades and tools and carry heavy loads.

 In mining, children may use poisonous chemicals, face the risk of mine

collapse, and sometimes work with explosives.

 In construction, children may carry heavy loads; work at heights without

safety equipment, and risk injury from dangerous machinery children may

use toxic solvents, perform repetitive tasks in painful in manufacturing

positions, and risk injury from sharp tools.

 In domestic work, children risk abuse, work long hours, and often live in

isolation from their families and friends.

It is also true that children who work often don’t get a proper education.

Long, strenuous work days can leave kids exhausted and unable to attend

classes or do their homework. For parents who are struggling to keep their

families afloat, sending kids to school is a luxury they cannot afford.

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4.3 Legal Loopholes

The elimination of child labour from the production process altogether

requires a two-pronged approach to curb it at both the demand side and supply

sides. Ann George and Dev Nathan have argued that corporate initiatives can

deal with the demand side, but social policy intervention is required to deal with

the supply side. Consequently, corporations need to move beyond legal

obligations and adopt social responsibility measures to successfully prevent

children from entering the workforce.

However, there is little incentive for them to do so because employing

children is economically advantageous. Laws have proven to be inadequate in

preventing corporations from hiring children, especially since corporations often

exploit legal loopholes. For instance, in India, two different legal regimes guide

the understanding of child labour and this is exploited by corporations to employ

children.

4.4 Not Just an Economic Problem

Child labour has traditionally been understood as a symptom of economic

underdevelopment. This conception assumes that if a country is able to achieve

higher rates of economic growth, it will automatically eliminate poverty because

of which child labour will cease to exist. Kiran Bhatty, however, has argued that

this notion is incorrect and that child labour cannot be posited as an economic

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problem alone. If there is sufficient political will to enforce primary education,

then children can be kept away from hazardous workplaces.

Child labour must be seen as less a phenomenon of poverty and more of

social attitudes and sensibilities. This is evident from the fact that the developed

world tackled this problem much before its economies grew strong. And even in

the developing world there are countries where this problem is relatively non-

existent.

The extent of child labour in certain industries and the social degradation

and damage it leads to in the long run must force us to acknowledge the social

dimension of the problem and the moral and ethical questions it raises. Only

when society as a whole internalizes this sentiment will there be enough

conviction to make a positive impact on the eradication of child labour.

4.5 Workers’ rights are repressed.

Workers’ abilities to organize unions affect the international protection of

core labour standards, including child labour. Attacks on workers’ abilities to

organize make it more difficult to improve labour standards and living standards

in order to eliminate child labour. For example, in 2010, 5,000 workers were fired

and 2,500 workers were arrested as a result of their union activity, according to

the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions.

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As multinational corporations expand across borders, countries often

compete for jobs, investment, and industry. This competition sometimes slows

child labour reform by encouraging corporations and governments to seek low

labour costs by resisting international standards. Some U.S. legislation has begun

to include labour standards and child labour as criteria for preferential trade and

federal contracts. However, international free trade rules may prohibit

consideration of child labour or workers’ rights.

The effects of poverty in developing countries are often worsened by the

large interest payments on development loans. The structural adjustments

associated with these loans often require governments to cut education, health,

and other public programs, further harming children and increasing pressure on

them to become child labourers.

4.6 The Solution of Child Labour

Every family must earn their minimum income in order to survive and

prevent child labour. It will reduce the level of poverty and thus child labour.

Family control will also help in controlling the child labour by reducing the

families burden of child care and education.

Child labour persists even though laws and standards to eliminate it exist.

Current causes of global child labour are similar to its causes in the U.S. 100

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years ago, including poverty, limited access to education, repression of workers’

rights, and limited prohibitions on child labour.

Every family must earn their minimum income in order to survive and

prevent child labour. It will reduce the level of poverty and thus child labour.

Family control will also help in controlling the child labour by reducing the

families burden of child care and education. The following are the main solution

of child labour;

 Creating more unions may help in preventing the child labour as it will

encourage more people to help against child labour.

 All the children should be given first priority by their parents to take

proper and regular education from their early childhood. This step needs

much cooperation by the parents as well as schools to free children for

education and take admission of children from all walks of life

respectively.

 Child labour needs high level social awareness with the proper statistics of

huge loss in the future for any developing country.

 Every family must earn their minimum income in order to survive and

prevent child labour. It will reduce the level of poverty and thus child

labour.

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 Family control will also help in controlling the child labour by reducing the

families burden of child care and education.

 There is need of more effective and strict government laws against child

labour in order to prevent children from working in their little age.

 Child trafficking should be completely abolished by the governments of all

countries.

 Child workers should be replaced by the adult workers as almost 800

million adults are unemployed in this world. In this way adult will get job

and children will be free from child labour.

 Employment opportunities should be increased for adults in order to

overcome problem of poverty and child labour.Business owners of

factories, industries, mines, etc should take the pledge of not involving

children in any type of labour.

Child labour persists even though laws and standards to eliminate it exist.

Current causes of global child labour are similar to its causes in the U.S. 100

years ago, including poverty, limited access to education, repression of workers’

rights, and limited prohibitions on child labour.

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CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

Child labour remains a major public health concern in LMICs, being

associated with adverse physical and mental health outcomes. Current efforts

against child labour need to be revisited, at least in LMICs. Further studies

following a longitudinal design, and using common methods to assess the health

impact of child labour in different country contexts would inform policy making.

5.1 Conclusion

For decades, child labour has been an important global issue associated

with inadequate educational opportunities, poverty and gender inequality. 1 Not

all types of work carried out by children are considered child labour.

Engagement of children or adolescents in work with no influence on their health

and schooling is usually regarded positive. The International Labour Organization

(ILO) describes child labour as ‘work that deprives children of their childhood,

potential and dignity, and that is harmful to physical and mental development’.

This definition includes types of work that are mentally, physically, socially or

morally harmful to children; or disrupts schooling.

Despite the reported decline in child labour from 1995 to 2000, it remains

a major concern. In 2016, it was estimated that ~150 million children under the

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age of 14 are engaged in labour worldwide, with most of them working under

circumstances that denies them a playful childhood and jeopardize their health.

Most working children are 11–14 years, but around 60 million are 5–11 years old.

There are no exact numbers of the distribution of child labour globally; however,

available statistics show that 96% of child workers are in Africa, Asia and Latin

America.

A meta-analysis on the topic was published in 2007. However, authors

reported only an association of child labour with higher mortality and morbidity

than in the general population, without reporting individual outcome specific

effects. Another meta-analysis investigated the effects of adverse childhood

experiences (ACEs), including child labour, on health. They reported that ACEs

are risk factors for many adverse health outcomes.

To our knowledge, this is the first systematic review that attempts to

summarize current evidence on the impacts of child labour on both physical and

mental health, based on specific outcomes. We review the most recent evidence

on the health impacts of child labour in low- and middle-income countries

(LMICs) according to the World Bank classification. We provide an informative

summary of current studies of the impacts of child labour, and reflect upon the

progress of anti-child labour policies and laws.

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Children can work in dangerous conditions in all sectors, including

agriculture, mining, construction, manufacturing, the service industry, retail and

domestic service. However, agriculture is where the highest incidence of child

labourers is found (71%) and it is a sector particularly prone to dangerous

conditions, especially for children. For example, hazardous work in cotton

production is among the worst forms of child labour, as children are exposed to

harmful pesticides

The ILO estimates that some 22,000 children are killed at work every year.

However, due to the fact that much of child labour is hidden, it is difficult to

obtain accurate data on how children are being affected. For instance, the

numbers of those injured or made ill because of their work are not known.

5.2 Recommendation

The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, in

collabouration with the Bureau of Labour Statistics and other relevant federal

and state agencies, should develop and implement a comprehensive plan for

monitoring the work-related injuries and illnesses sustained by workers under

the age of 18 and for monitoring the hazards to which these young workers are

exposed. Additional resources should be allocated to the appropriate agencies to

implement the components of such a plan that are not currently funded.

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This is even more reason to stamp out the practice of child labour

altogether. Children are some of the most vulnerable members of society and

those involved in child labour face significantly increased vulnerability, given

their situation. Children working in difficult and hazardous conditions, suffer

higher levels of illness and injury. They are more at risk than adults to workplace

hazards because of their age and level of development. As a consequence of

hazardous work, a number of serious diseases appear only in adulthood and are

often more devastating and are more likely to cause permanent harm.

Children involved in hazardous work may work at night, over long hours,

be exposed to physical, psychological, or sexual abuse, and have to work in

dangerous situations, such as underground, underwater, at dangerous heights,

heat, cold or in isolated and confined spaces. Some children have to operate

unsafe machinery, equipment, and tools, or be required to lift heavy loads and

be exposed to hazardous substances, agents, or processes, or to temperatures,

noise levels, or vibrations that can cause serious damage to their health.

There is also a gender dimension to hazardous work or worst forms of

child labour. For instance, girls are more likely to perform heavy domestic work

and be subject to sexual abuse and exploitation, while boys are more likely to be

involved in dangerous work in agriculture, operating heavy machinery, or

spraying pesticides or handling dangerous chemicals.

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Children involved in child labour are more likely to experience worse

health outcomes also later in life. The impact of hazardous work can cause

profound and long-lasting health problems that may only become evident in

adulthood. This makes them difficult to measure or even prove. Cancer, infertility

and chronic backpain are just some of the possible long-term negative health

outcomes. The consequences are worsened by poverty and the lack of efficient

health and social security schemes.

There is also the potential impact of child labour on individual’s mental

health. However, like other aspects of health and child labour, the magnitude of

the issue is hard to measure and is therefore less known.

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