The major function of carbohydrates is to provide energy for bodily functions.

This energy is needed to

carry on body processes such as breathing, maintaining body temperature, and contraction and
relaxation of the heart and muscles. Energy is also needed for physical activities. The brain, nerve cells,
and developing red bloods cells can only use glucose for energy.Each gram of carbohydrate in food
provides four calories of energy. Glucose is the main carbohydrate that the body breaks down for
energy. The major pathway by which glucose is broken down for energy requires oxygen, and the final
products are carbon dioxide, water, and energy. In the muscles, if oxygen is in short supply, some
glucose can be broken down for energy by a different pathway that does not require oxygen; however,
the final products are lactic acid and energy. Lactic acid builds up in the muscles and causes cramping.
(Whitney, E.N. & Rolfes, S.R. (2015) Understanding Nutrition, 14th ed., Wadsworth, Cengage Learning,
Belmont, CA.)

Carbohydrates can be strong antigens which may trigger harmful immune reactions.For example the
ABO blood group antigens are the carbohydrate moieties attached to the lipids or proteins on the
surface of erythrocytes and many others cell types. A, B and O antigens are structurally related. All
people have enzymes which synthesize the O antigen (H substance). In people with B antigen there is an
enzyme which adds a galactose residue to the H substance and people with A antigen have an enzyme
adding GalNac residue.The other example can be Trypanosoma brucei (it causes dangerous disease
within some animals) which contains highly variable surface glycoproteins (VSGs). They are strong
antigens. Trypanosoma frequently changes one VSG to another thus enabling the protozoan to elude
host responses that would inactivate it.

Adhesion molecules are important for reproduction. Binding of the sperm cell to the egg is mediated by
glycoproteins serving as receptors on the surface of each two membranes. Glycoproteins surrounding
the egg (forming zona pellucida) prevent the polyspermy. Adhesion carbohydrates are also essential for
embryonic development. As the fertilized egg divides, the carbohydrates on resulting embryonic cells
change in characteristic ways. For example a trisaccharide LeX appears at the 8 to 16 cell stage when the
embryo compacts from a group of loose cells into a smooth ball. LeX trisaccharide plays an important
role in compaction.

Cell - cell contacts mediated by glycoproteins play a role in growth control. For example contactinhibin
(N-glycosylated protein) is responsible for density dependent inhibition of fibroblasts growth. Cells stop
proliferation when contacts between them are close ; they form a monolayer. Contactinhibin is
synthesized in highly sialylated, inactive form. After contacts between the cells are established, the
glycoprotein is converted to low sialylated, biologically active form. It is placed in the plasma membrane
and binds to a specific cell-surface receptor, CiR.

Carbohydrates are sometimes important for protein folding. They are negatively charged and can
interact with amino acid side chains.

For example expression of functional human CD4 on a surface of T-lymphocytes requires glycosylation of
either one or two N-linked sites within the third Ig-like domain. Otherwise the protein is improperly
folded and cannot be exported from the ER (it is retained there).
In human immunoglobulins the carbohydrate chain wraps around one of the protein domains
preventing its contact with the adjacent domain. When the carbohydrate chain is removed, the domain
could no longer perform its ordinary function. Because immunoglobulin function is determined to a
large extent by its structure, the carbohydrate removing affected the structure of the molecule.IgG is
unique among the serum glycoproteins because it is associated with at least 30 different biantennary N-
linked oligosaccharides. This extremely high microheterogenity is probably produced because human
individuals have series of B-cell clones equipped with different sets of glycosyltransferases.Another
example of structural (and functional) role of carbohydrates is the VIP receptor (VIP= Vasoactive
Intestinal Peptide ; it is a neuropeptide ). It contains at least three tri- or tetraantennary sialylated N-
linked oligosaccharides. Some of them have terminal galactose residues. Glycosylation of VIPR is
required for stabilization of the receptor and for the proper transport of de novo synthesized receptors
to the cell surface.At least one carbohydrate chain may also be required for high affinity ligand binding
(it is unusual among the neurotransmitter receptors).

Carbohydrates contain soluble and insoluble elements; the insoluble part is known as fiber, which is
mostly cellulose. Fiber has many uses; it promotes regular bowel movement by adding bulk, and it
regulates the rate of consumption of blood glucose. Fiber also helps to remove excess cholesterol from
the body. Fiber binds and attaches to the cholesterol in the small intestine and prevents the cholesterol
particles from entering the bloodstream. Then cholesterol exits the body via the feces. Fiber-rich diets
also have a protective role in reducing the occurrence of colon cancer. In addition, a meal containing
whole grains and vegetables gives a feeling of fullness (OpenStax College, Carbohydrates. October 16,
2013 ).

Carbohydrates are ubiquitous and perform a wide array of biological roles. Carbohydrate-based or -
modified therapeutics are used extensively in cardiovascular and hematological treatments ranging from
inflammatory diseases and anti-thrombotic treatments to wound healing. Heparin is a well-known and
widely used example of a carbohydrate-based drug(Michelle Kilcoyne et al. Cardiovasc Hematol Agents
Med Chem. 2007 Jul).Heparin derivatives, including low-molecular-weight heparins (LMWH) and heparin
pentasaccharide, are effective anticoagulants currently used in clinical settings. They have also been
studied as functional biomolecules or biomaterials for various therapeutic uses to treat diseases such as
cancer (Nipa Banik et al. Int J Mol Sci. 2021).

Maternal milk contains compounds that may affect newborn immunity. Among these are a group of
oligosaccharides that are synthesized in the mammary gland from lactose; these oligosaccharides have
been termed human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs). The amount of HMOs present in human milk is
greater than the amount of protein. In fact, HMOs are the third-most abundant solid component in
maternal milk after lactose and lipids, and are thus considered to be key components. The importance of
HMOs may be explained by their inhibitory effects on the adhesion of microorganisms to the intestinal
mucosa, the growth of pathogens through the production of bacteriocins and organic acids, and the
expression of genes that are involved in inflammation. HMOs seem to protect breastfed infants against
microbial infections. The protective effect has been found to be exerted through cell signaling and cell-
to-cell recognition events, enrichment of the protective gut microbiota, the modulation of microbial
adhesion, and the invasion of the infant intestinal mucosa. In addition, infants fed formula
supplemented with selected HMOs exhibit a pattern of inflammatory cytokines closer to that of
exclusively breastfed infants(Julio Plaza-Díaz et al. Nutrients. 2018).

Chitin is a linear polysaccharide of the amino sugar N-acetyl glucosamine. It is present in the
extracellular matrix of a variety of invertebrates including sponges, molluscs, nematodes and arthropods
and fungi. Generally, it is an important component of protective or supportive extracellular matrices
that cover the tissue that produces it or the whole body of the organism. . Usually, chitin fibre bundles
interact with chitin-binding proteins forming higher order structures. Chitin laminae, which are two-
dimensional sheets of α-chitin crystals with antiparallel running chitin fibres in association with β-folded
proteins, are primary constituents of the arthropod cuticle and the fibrous extracellular matrix in
sponges. A tri-dimensional composite material of proteins coacervates and β-chitin constitute hard
biomaterials such as the squid beak. The γ-chitin-based structures contribute to the physical barrier
found in insect cocoons . In principle, chitin is a versatile extracellular polysaccharide that in association
with proteins defines the mechanical properties of tissues and organisms.(Bernard Moussian. Adv Exp
Med Biol. 2019 ).

The formation of lignified secondary cell walls, one of the key evolutionary developments that
allowed plants to rule the terrestrial environment, is significant. These thick, stiff walls support
the plant structurally and strengthen the xylem's long-distance transport tubes. The majority of
the world's SCW biomass is in the form of fibers in secondary xylem (i.e., xylary fibers) and
primary growth, even though trachea elements (i.e., vessels and tracheids) serve important
physiological functions in the transport of water and minerals (i.e. sclerenchymatous fibers)
(Meents et al., 2018)

Sucralose is a synthetic sweetener with no calories and no nutritional value. It is a chlorinated

sugar alternative that has a sweetness level 600 times greater than sucrose. Three chlorine atoms
replace three hydroxyl groups to create it from sugar. Obese and diabetic people use it as tablets
(Blendy). Additionally, it serves as an excipient in the production of medicines.(AlDeeb et al.,
2013) t