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Immunity and Immunopathology

Presentation · March 2019

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.25234.91848

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Ahmed M. A. Alsaidya
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 Immunity and
Immunopathology
IMMUNITY
Immunity is the resistance of body against extraneous etiological
factors of disease, which is afforded by the interaction of chemical,
humoral and cellular reactions in body.
It can be classified as natural and acquired or specific immunity

Natural ( Innate or paraspecific immunity)

There are some species resistant for a particular disease due to presence
of natural resistance against them e.g. Horse, pig, cat are resistant to
canine distemper virus; dogs are resistant to feline panleucopenia virus,
chickens are resistant to anthrax.
there are the mechanisms or barriers in body provided by nature, which
are:
• Skin and mucous membrane prevent organisms from gaining entrance in
body
• Mucous prevents from infections by trapping and keep them away.
• Saliva, gastric juice and intestinal enzymes kill bacteria.
Tears, nasal and GI tract secretions are bactericidal due to presence of
lysozymes.
• Phagocytic cells such as neutrophils kill bacteria through phagocytosis.
• Macrophages kill organisms through phagocytosis
• Natural antibodies acts as opsonins and helps in phagocytosis.
• Interferons have antimicrobial properties. They are hostf species
specific and arrest the viral
replication.
• Interleukins, cytotoxins and growth factors stimulate the immune
reactions and
inflammation
• Natural killer cells kill targets coated with IgG.

Acquired ( specific or adaptive Immunity )

Acquired immunity develop in body as a result of prior stimulation
through antigen. It is specific to a particular antigen against which it was
developed. It can be re-stimulated on second or subsequent exposure with
antigen and thus, it has memory for a particular antigen. It differs from
natural immunity in respect of prior stimulation, specificity and memory.
It can be classified as humoral and cell mediated immunity.

Dr. Ahmed Alsaidya Pathology 1

Humoral Immunity

The immunity present in fluids of body mainly in blood. There are

antibodies in serum of blood, which protect body from diseases. It is
specific to particular antigen.
Antibodies are formed in blood as a result of exposure of the foreign
substances including bacteria, virus, parasite and other substances.

Antigen is foreign substance, which is able to stimulate the production of

antibodies in body. They may be of high molecular weight protein,
polysaccharides, and nucleic acids. Simple chemicals of low molecular
weight are not able to induce immunity. However, they may be
conjugated with a large molecular weight molecules such as protein then
they become antigenic and induce antibody production, such substances
are termed as haptens.

Antibodies are protein in nature present in serum and produced as a result

of antigen. Antibodies are specific to antigen. Most of them
icroorganisms have several antigenic determinants and antibodies are
produced against each antigenic determinant specifically.
The antibody response to antigen can be enhanced if the antigen is
released slowly in body. There are several substances like oils, waxes,
alum, aluminium hydroxide, which may be added with antigen so that it
is released slowly in body to increase the antibody production. Such
substances are known as adjuvants. Antibodies are also known as
immunoglobulins as they are the part of globulins. They are glycoprotein
in nature and are of 5 types : IgG, IgA, IgM, IgD and IgE.

Dr. Ahmed Alsaidya Pathology 2

On the basis of their function, antibodies are classified as:
 Anti-toxins have the property to bind with toxins and neutralize
them.
 Agglutinins are those antibodies, which can agglutinatethe RBC's
and/ or particulate material such as bacterial cells.
 Precipitins can precipitate the proteins by acting with antigen and
inhibit their dissemination and chemical activity.
 Lysins can lyse the cells or bacteria through complement.
 Opsonins have the property to bind with foreign particles,non
specifically leading to opsonization, making the foreign material
palatable to phagocytic cells.
 Complement fixing antibodies bind with antigen and fix the
complement for its lysis.

 Neutralizing antibodies are those, which specifically neutralizes/

destroy the target antigen.

Immune response :

Dr. Ahmed Alsaidya Pathology 3

Cells and Tissues of the Immune system
The tissues of the immune system consist of the generative (also
called primary, or central) lymphoid organs, in which T lymphocytes and
B lymphocytes mature and become competent to respond to antigens, and
the peripheral (or secondary) lymphoid organs, in which adaptive
immune responses to microbes are initiated. The principal generative
lymphoid organs are the thymus, where T cells develop, and the bone
marrow, the site of production of all blood cells and where|
B-lymphocytes mature. The major peripheral organs are spleen , Lymph
nodes and The cutaneous and mucosal lymphoid systems.
The cells of the immune system consist of lymphocytes, most of
which have specific receptors for antigens and mount adaptive immune
responses; specialized APCs, which capture and display microbial and
other antigens to the lymphocytes; and various effector cells, whose
function is to eliminate microbes and other antigens.

1. T- Lymphocytes : Mainly for cellular immunity

2. B- Lymphocytes : Mainly for humoral immunity
3. Antigen-Presenting Cells (ex. Dendritic cells , macrophages…)

Dr. Ahmed Alsaidya Pathology 4

IMMUNOPATHOLOGY
Immunopathology includes the disorders of immune system characterized
by increased response or (hypersensitivity), response to self antigens
(autoimmunity) and decreased responses (Immunodeficiencies).

HYPERSENSITIVITY
It represents an accelerated immune response to an antigen (allergen),
which is harmful to body rather than to provide protection or benefit to
the body. Such violent reactions may lead to death. This condition is also
known as allergy.
The hypersensitive reactions can be classified into four classical form
including anaphylaxis (Type I), cytotoxic hypersensitivity (Type-II),
Immune complex mediated hypersensitivity (Type III) and delayed
type hypersensitivity (Type-IV) reaction.

ANAPHYLAXIS OR TYPE-I HYPERSENSITIVITY

Anaphylaxis or type I hypersensitivity reaction is rapidly developing
immune response to an antigen characterized by humoral antibodies of
IgE type. These antibodies sensitize baophils/ mast cells to release
chemical mediators (Histamine, Serotonin, Prostaglandins) of
inflammation leading to acute inflammatory reaction.

Etiology
• Administration of drugs.
• Administration of serum.
• Bite of insects, bee etc.
• Dust, pollens etc.

Macroscopic and microscopic features

• Bronchial asthma.
• Oedema, congestion, erythema, itching on skin.
• Rhinitis
• Congestion, pulmonary oedema, emphysema, constriction of
bronchioles.
• Edema, congestion, haemorrhage on skin

Dr. Ahmed Alsaidya Pathology 5

CYTOTOXIC OR TYPE II HYPERSENSITIVITY REACTION
Cytotoxic reactions are characterized by lysis of cells due to antigen-
antibody reaction on the surface of cells in the presence of complement

Etiology/ Occurrence
• Blood transfusion
• Hemolytic anemia
• Infections such as Equine infectious anemia, rickettsia, parasites
(trypanosomiosis, babesiosis)
• Thrombocytopenia
• Drugs such as penicillin, phenacetin, quininecephalosporins.

Macroscopic and microscopic features

• Anemia
• Jaundice
• Haemoglobinuria
• Erythrophagocytosis
• Lysis of erythrocytes/ agglutination of erythrocytes.
• Increased number of hemosiderin laden cells in spleen.

IMMUNE COMPLEX MEDIATED OR TYPE-III

HYPERSENSITIVITY REACTION
Type-III hypersensitivity reaction is characterized by the formation of
immune complexes as a result of antigen – antibody reaction and their
deposition in body tissues leading to inflammatory reaction.

Etiology
• Immunoglobulins
• Tumor antigens, nuclear antigens
• Environmental pollutants e.g. pesticides
• Infections such as Leishmaniasis

Macroscopic and microscopic features

• Arthus reaction is focal area of inflammation, necrosis at the site of
infection.
• Serum sickness is necrotizing vasculitis, endocarditis and
glomerulonephritis.

• Chronic Immune complex disease is renal failure due to

glomerulonephritis, vasculitis, chroiomeningitis and arthritis.
• Deposition of immune complexes in wall of blood vessels.
• Deposition of immune complexes in glomeruli.
Dr. Ahmed Alsaidya Pathology 6
• Infiltration of inflammatory cells such as neutrophils, macrophages and
lymphocytes.
• Lesions of glomerulonephritis, polyarthritis.

TYPE IV HYPERSENSITIVITY REACTION -DELAYED TYPE

HYPERSENSITIVITY (DTH)
TH reaction is mediated by sensitized T-Iymphocytes and is the
manifestation of cell- mediated immune response.

Etiology
• Tuberculin reaction
• Graft versus host reactions
• Granulomatous reaction
Macroscopic and microscopic features
• Formation of nodules, which are hard, painful to touch.
• Rejection of transplants/ grafts.
• Heavy infiltrations of mononuclear cells particularly of Tlymphocytes
and macrophages.
• Congestion and oedema
• Lymphocytic infiltration is more common around the blood
vessels
• Lymphofollicular reaction.

Mechanisms of Hypersensitivity Reactions

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AUTOIMMUNITY
In autoimmunity (auto-self) the immune response is generated against
self antigens. It is an aberrant reaction that serves no useful purpose in
body. Rather, the immunity developed against self antigens destroys the
tissues of body causes inflammation leading to death.

Etiology- Occurrence
• Hidden antigens e.g. spermatozoa
• Alteration of antigens e.g. Infections, mutations, chemicals bind with
normal body proteins recognized as foreign.
• Cross reaction between antigens of self and foreign
• Forbidden clones of immunocytes

Macroscopic and microscopic features

• Autoimmune hemolytic anemia.
• Anti-glomerular basement membrane (GBM) nephritis
• Lymphocytic thyroditis
• Lupus erythematosus- antinuclear antibodies.
• Hemolytic anemia
• Leukopenia
• Presence of antinuclear antibodies
• Infiltration of lymphocytes! macrophages (Lymphocytic thryroditis).
• In anti-GBM nephritis, there is immune complex mediated
glomerulonephritis.

IMMUNODEFICIENCY
The alterations in immune system, which decrease the effectiveness or
destroy the capabilities of the system to respond to various antigens are
designated as immunodeficiency.
This precarious situation may be attributed to poorly developed
immunocompetence or depressed immunity as a result of genetic and
environmental factors. Immunodeficiences are thus classified as
congenital or primary and acquired or secondary.

Dr. Ahmed Alsaidya Pathology 8

 Congenital immunodeficiency
In this type of immunodeficiency, the defect in immunity is genetically
determined and is present in animals since their birth.

Etiology/ Occurrence
• Defect in basic cellular components e.g. stem cells
• Defective genes
• Defect in enzymes
• Defective expression of cell components.

Types
Combined immunodeficiency syndrome (CIS)
• Absence of stem cells of immunocytes
• Agammaglobulinemia
• Absence of T and B cells in blood, leucopenia

Defects in T -lymphocytes
• Thymic hypoplasia
• B-cells are normal and adequate amount of immunoglobulins present in
blood
• Absence of T -dependent regions in lymphnodes
• In Danish cattle, exanthema, alopecia, parakeratosis occurs due to T-cell
defect with A- 46 lethal trait gene.

Defects in B- lymphocytes
• In equines - equine agammaglobulinemia
• Normal T-cell count, absence of B-cells, absence of all classes of
immunoglobulins
• 'X' linked defects in gene occurs in males
• Absence of primary lymphoid follicles in germinal centres in spleen and
lymphnodes.
• Selective IgA, IgM and IgG deficiency may also occur.
• Transient hypogammaglobulinemia in new born calves.

Partial T and B cell defects

• Partial presence of T and B-Iymphocytes.
• Recurrent infections, eczema, purpura.
• Due to 'X' chromosome linked genetic defect.
• Poor platelet aggregation

Dr. Ahmed Alsaidya Pathology 9

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