PERSONAL

PROTECTIVE
EQUIPMENTS:
● commonly referred to as "PPE"
● is equipment worn to minimize
exposure to hazards that cause
serious workplace injuries and
illnesses.

Rules in the laboratory

● Always use care and common sense in
the laboratory
● Check the labels of all chemicals for
safety warnings before using them.
○ If the container doesn’t have a
safety label, consult your
instructor

Lab Coats
● Fluid resistant disposable
● Reusable resistant
● Regular cotton

Gloves
● Wear protective gear if you are
● Protects skin contact contamination handling dangerous materials.
● Plan ahead about what to do if a spill
*A face mask is still required. occurs.
○ If you spill a dangerous
substance on your body, you
may have to remove your
clothing.
○ If your lab has a safety shower,
stand under it and pull the
ring.
● Avoid using materials to which you
have a known sensitivity.
● Locate the first aid equipment in the
laboratory and familiarize yourself
with its use.
● Locate the nearest emergency medical
help, and identify the easiest and
fastest way to access it.
● Locate the fire safety equipment in
your lab and familiarize yourself with
its use.
○ Locate the nearest fire alarm
box, and identify the
recommended primary and
alternate fire exit.
● Confirm all the directions,
procedures, and other information
with your instructor prior to each
activity. Mark changes or additions in
the manual, crossing out any
information that does not apply to
you.
● Always follow the directions provided
with equipment and supplies, even if
they are different from those given in
the manual. Injuries often result from
the misuse of equipment.
● Remember that absolutely no eating,
drinking, or smoking is allowed in the
laboratory.
● To avoid injury or contamination,
properly dispose of, or clean and
store, all lab equipment and supplies
before leaving the laboratory. Wash
your hands thoroughly on entering
and leaving a biological laboratory.
● Always supervise experiments or
demonstrations in progress. Never
leave a laboratory experiment
unattended.
Microscope
● A microscope is an instrument used to
see objects that are too small for the
naked eye.
● The science of investigating small
objects using such an instrument is
called microscopy.
● Microscopic means invisible to the eye
unless aided by a microscope.
Parts and Functions of a
Compound Microscope
Light microscopes
● Simple - uses single lenses
○ Ex: magnifying glass
● Compound - Uses set lenses or a lens
system
○ Mechanical Parts -
Adjustments and Support
○ Magnifying Parts - Enlarge the
specimen
○ Illuminating Parts - Provide
the light
Mechanical Parts
● Base
○ Bottommost portion that
supports the entire/lower
microscope
● Pillar
○ Part above the base that
supports the other parts of
Inclination
● Joint ● Revolving/Rotating Nosepiece
○ Allows for tilting of the ○ Rotating disc where the
microscope for convenience of objectives are attached
the user
● Dust Shield
○ Lies atop the nosepiece and
keeps dust from settling on
the objectives

● Arm/Neck
○ Curved/slanted part which is
held while carrying the
microscope
● Stage
○ Platform where object to be
examined is placed
● Coarse Adjustment Knob – Geared to
● Stage Clips
the body tube which elevates or
○ Secures the specimen to the
lowers when rotated bringing the
stage
object into approximate focus
● Stage Opening
● Body Tube
● Fine Adjustment Knob – A smaller
○ Attached to the arm and bears
knob for delicate focusing bringing
the lenses
the object into perfect focus
● Draw Tube
○ Cylindrical structure on top of
the body tube that holds the
ocular lenses

● Condenser Adjustment Knob –

Elevates and lowers the condenser to
regulate the intensity of light

● Iris Diaphragm Lever – Lever in front

of the condenser and which is moved
 horizontally to open/close the contains especially ground
diaphragm and polished lenses
● LPO / Low Power Objective
○ Gives the lowest
magnification, usually 10x
● HPO / High Power Objective
○ Gives higher magnification
usually 40x or 43x
● OIO / Oil Immersion Objective
○ Gives the highest
magnification, usually 97x or
100x, and is used wet either
● Mirror – Located beneath the stage with cedar wood oil or
and has concave and plane surfaces to synthetic oil
gather and direct light in order to
illuminate the object

● Electric Lamp – A built-in illuminator

beneath the stage that may be used if
sunlight is not preferred or is not
available

Total Magnification
● Magnification = Objective lens X
Eyepiece lens

Magnifying Parts
● Ocular / Eyepiece
○ Another set of lenses found on
top of the body tube which
functions to further magnify
the image produced by the
objective lenses. It usually
ranges from 5x to 15x.
● Objectives
○ Metal cylinders attached
below the nosepiece and
*As magnification increases, detail Preparing a slide as a wet mount.
increases but less of the cell is seen.

Caring for the Microscope

1. Do not let any liquids come in contact
with the microscope.
2. Always store the microscope inside a
box after use.
3. Return the objective lens onto low
power after use.
4. Carry the microscope by the arm.
5. Use a soft clean tissue to wipe the
lenses

Use of stains
● some parts of a plant cell can be
clearly seen when the cell is mounted
in water
● E.g. an Elodea leaf cell:
○ cell wall
○ several chloroplasts
■ Both are seen

Stains
● other cell structures which are not so
obvious can often be shown up more
clearly by the addition of dyes
● Iodine Solution - Used to stain plant
cells
● Methylene Blue - Used to stain animal
cells
 ○ the result of all simpler levels
working in unison

The Human Body An

Orientation

An Overview of Anatomy
● Anatomy
○ The study of the structure of
the human body
○ Based on ancient Greek or
Latin
○ Provides standard Systemic v.s Regional Anatomy
nomenclature worldwide
● Branches of anatomy ● Systemic – study of anatomy by
○ Gross anatomy system
○ Microscopic anatomy ● Regional – study of anatomy by region
(histology) ● Most students use a combination of
○ Surface anatomy regional and systemic study
● Physiology
○ The study of body function
The Integumentary System
The Hierarchy of Structural ● Forms external body covering
● Protects deeper tissues from injury
Organization ● Synthesizes vitamin D
● Chemical level ● Site of cutaneous receptors
○ atoms form molecules ○ (pain, pressure, etc.) and
● Cellular level sweat and oil glands
○ cells and their functional
subunits
● Tissue level
○ a group of cells performing a
common function
● Organ level
○ a discrete structure made up
of more than one tissue
● Organ system
○ organs working together for a
common purpose
● Organismal level
The Skeletal System
● Protects and supports body organs
● Provides a framework for muscles
● Blood cells formed within bones
● Stores minerals

The Endocrine System

● Glands secrete hormones that
regulate
● Growth
● Reproduction
The Muscular System ● Nutrient use

● Allows manipulation of environment

● Locomotion
● Facial expression
● Maintains posture
● Produces heat

The Cardiovascular System

● Blood vessels transport blood
● Carries oxygen and carbon dioxide
● Also carries nutrients and wastes
● Heart pumps blood through blood
The Nervous System
vessels
● Fast-acting control system
● Responds to internal and external
changes
The Lymphatic System
● Picks up fluid leaked from blood
The Digestive System
vessels ● Breaks down food into absorbable
● Disposes of debris in the lymphatic units
system ● Indigestible foodstuffs eliminated as
● Houses white blood cells feces
(lymphocytes)
● Mounts attack against foreign
substances in the body

The Urinary System

● Eliminates nitrogenous wastes
● Regulates water, electrolyte, and
The Respiratory System acid-base balance

● Keeps blood supplied with oxygen

● Removes carbon dioxide
● Gas exchange occurs through walls of
air sacs in the lungs
Reproductive System
● Overall function is to produce
offspring
● Testes produce sperm and male sex
hormones
● Ovaries produce eggs and female sex
hormones
● Mammary glands produce milk
Orientation and Directional
Terms
Superior (cranial)
- Toward the head end or upper part of
a structure or the body, above
- Ex. the head is superior to the
abdomen

Introduction to Gross Anatomy Inferior (caudal)

Regional terms
● names of specific body areas
● Axial region – the main axis of the
body
● Appendicular region – the limbs
- Away from the head end or toward the
lower part of a structure or the body;
below
- Ex. the navel is inferior to the chin

Directional terminology
● Refers to the body in anatomical -
position
● Standardized terms of directions are
Anterior (ventral)
paired terms
- toward or at the front of the body; in
front of
- Ex. the breastbone is anterior to the
spine

-
Posterior (dorsal) Distal
- Toward or at the back of the body; - Farther to the origin of the body part
behind or the point of attachment of a limb to
- Ex. the heart is posterior to the the body trunk
breastbone - Ex. the knee is distal to the thigh

-
-
Medial
- Toward or at the midline of the body; Superficial (external)
on the inner side of - Toward or at the body surface
- Ex. the heart is medial to the arm - Ex. The skin is superficial to the
skeletal muscles

-
-

Lateral
Deep (internal)
- Away from the midline of the body; on
the outer side of - Away from the body surface; more
- Ex. the arms are lateral to the chest internal
- Ex. the lungs are deep to the skin

-
-
Proximal
- Closer to the origin of the body part or
the point of attachment of a limb to
the body trunk
- Ex. the elbow is proximal to the wrist

-
Ipsilateral Regional Terms
- On the same side
- Ex. The right hand and right foot are
ipsilateral

Contralateral
- On opposite sides
- Ex. the right hand and the left foot are
contralateral

-
Body Planes and Sections
Coronal (frontal) plane
● Lies vertically and divides body into
anterior and posterior parts
Median (midsagittal) plane
● Specific sagittal plane that lies
vertically in the midline
Transverse plane
● runs horizontally and divides body
into superior and inferior parts
Oblique section
● through the trunk
Body Cavities and Membranes
Dorsal body cavity
● Cavity subdivided into the cranial
cavity and the vertebral cavity.
● Cranial cavity houses the brain.
● Vertebral cavity runs through the
vertebral column and encloses the
spinal cord
Ventral body cavity
● Thoracic cavity
○ Two lateral parts each
containing a lung surrounded
by a pleural cavity
○ Mediastinum – contains the
heart surrounded by the
pericardial sac
 ● Abdominopelvic cavity
○ Abdominal cavity – contains
the liver, stomach, kidneys,
and other organs
○ Pelvic cavity – contains the
bladder, some reproductive
organs, and rectum
Serous cavities
● a slit-like space lined by a serous
membrane
● Pleura, pericardium, and peritoneum
○ Parietal serosa – outer wall of
the cavity
○ Visceral serosa covers the
visceral organs
Other Body Cavities
● Oral cavity
● Nasal cavity
● Orbital cavities
● Middle ear cavities
● Synovial cavities
Abdominal Regions and Quadrants
● Abdominal regions divide the
abdomen into nine regions
Abdominal Quadrants
● Abdominal quadrants divide the
abdomen into four quadrants
○ Right upper and left upper
quadrants
○ Right lower and left lower
quadrants
 the external and internal
The Tissue Level of environment
Organization 2. may be specialized for absorption and
secretion - exocrine and endocrine
glands
Fundamental Types of Tissues 3. may bear motile cilia to move a film of
1. Epithelial Tissue fluid or mucus over its surface -
2. Connective Tissue ciliated epithelium
3. Muscular Tissue 4. on the exterior of the body, resists
4. Nervous Tissue abrasion and dehydration

CLASSIFICATION
FUNDAMENTAL TYPE – EPITHELIAL
Forms of Epithelial Tissues
I. Membrane Epithelium
● those lining the body surface cavities
or coverings.
II. Glandular Epithelium
● specialized to synthesize specific
products.
● contains extensive rough endoplasmic
reticulum.

Composition MEMBRANE EPITHELIUM

A. EPITHELIAL CELLS CLASSIFICATION SUBTYPE:
B. EXTRA/INTERCELLULAR SUBSTANCE
A. According to the number of cell layers.
1. Simple
CHARACTERISTICS:
● made up of only one
● consists of continuous cells in layer of cells.
apposition over a large portion of 2. Pseudostratified
their surface ● made up of a single
● cells rest on a continuous layer of cells but
extracellular layer,called the basal appears to have
lamina multiple layers
● absence of blood vessels among the because of the various
cells (avascularity) locations of the nuclei.
● cells are arranged in sheets or layers ● mostly columnar.
3. Stratified
FUNCTIONS ● with several layers of
cells and made up of a
1. forms a boundary layer that controls
distinct shape of cells
the movement of substances between
 on the most superficial
layer.
4. Transitional
● with several layers of
cells but the thickness
of the layer varies
depending on the
functional status of the
organ.

2. Cuboidal - polygonal and tall as wide

PRESENCE OF CELL SURFACE 3. Columnar - Polygonal and taller than

1. Cilia wide
● Movement of mucus liquids
2. Microvillus / Microvilli
a. Brush border
b. Striated borders
c. Stereocilia
3. Keratin
● Stratified

CLASSIFICATION
According to the shape of cells of superficial
SPECIFIC SUBTYPES
surface
A. Simple Epithelium
1. Squamous - flat / plate like : fish
1. Simple squamous epithelium
scales (wider than tall)
● endothelium,mesothel
ium, parietal layer of
Bowman's
capsule,pulmonary
alveoli.
 ● Single-thin lining cell 8. Pseudostratified columnar -
types seen on blood ciliated
vessels ● Lining of the
● Adopted in diffusion respiratory tract
B. Glandular Epithelium
Classification Principles:
A. Based on the presence or
absence of ducts
1. endocrine gland-
ductless
2. exocrine- with ducts
B. According to the number of
cells that make up a gland:
1. Unicellular – made up
of a single cell. e.g.
2. Simple cuboidal
goblet cells
● Thyroid follicles,
2. Multicellular – many
germinal epith of
cells make up a gland.
ovary, ducts of many
e.g. salivary glands
glands
C. According to the type of
3. Simple columnar - non ciliated
secretions:
● Lining of GIT and
1. Purely Serous
gallbladder
● secretes a thin
4. Simple columnar - ciliated
and watery
● Lining of the uterus
product e.g.
and fallopian tubes
parotid glands
5. Stratified squamous - non -
2. Purely Mucus
keratinized
● thick and
● Lining of the oral
viscid product
cavity, esophagus,
e.g. goblet cells
vagina
3. Muco-serous (Mixed)
● Plate-like shape
● submandibular
without nucleus (thin
glands
epithelium)
(predominantl
6. Stratified squamous -
y serous)
keratinized
● sublingual
● Epidermis
glands
7. Pseudostratified columnar -
(predominantl
non ciliated
y mucus)
● Lining of the ducts of
4. Cytogenetic
male reproductive &
● produces cells
accessory
as in the testis
reproductive organs
and ovaries
 D. According to mode of secretion:
1. Merocrine – no destruction of
the secretory cells e.g. eccrine
sweat glands
2. Apocrine – there is partial
destruction of secretory cells
e.g. mammary glands,
apocrine sweat glands of the
axillary areas or groin areas
3. Holocrine – there is total
destruction of secretory cells
e.g. sebaceous glands

Morphology
1. Tubular
A. simple tubular – e.g. intestinal
crypts of Lieberkuhn
B. simple coiled tubular – e.g.
eccrine sweat glands of the
skin
C. simple branched tubular – e.g.
fundic glands of the stomach
D. compound tubular – e.g. liver,
testis
2. Alveolar / Acinar / Saccular
A. simple alveolar – e.g.
sebaceous gland
B. simple branched alveolar –
Connective Tissue
sebaceous gland ● Characterized by large amounts of
C. compound alveolar – extracellular materials that separate
mammary gland cells from one another
3. Tubulo-Acinar / Mixed / Racemose
A. compound tubulo-acinar – Components of extracellular matrix
e.g. salivary glands
1. Protein Fiber
a. Collagen - common protein
(flexible, white fibers)
b. Reticular
c. Elastic
2. Ground substance
● Is the shapeless background
against which cells and
collagen fibers are seen in the
 light microscope. An
important component is
proteoglycans made up of
protein and polysaccharides.
● Fibers and non-fibers
3. Fluid
● Water based solution
● Blood of major cell matrix
● adipose cells are filled with
lipids and function to store
energy
● it also acts as a pad and
thermal insulator

Functions:
1. Enclosing and separating tissues
2. Connecting tissues to one another
3. Supporting and moving
4. Storing energy
5. Cushioning and insulating
6. Transporting 3. DENSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE
7. Protecting ● consists of densely packed
fibers
Classification ● Two types:
1. Dense Collagenous –
1. LOOSE OR AREOLAR
has extracellular
● consists of collagen and elastic
matrix consisting
fiber
mostly of collagen
● most common cells found are
fibers e.g. tendons,
fibroblast
ligaments, dermis and
● Fibroblasts are responsible
capsule
for the production of the
fibers of the matrix.

2. Dense Elastic – has

2. ADIPOSE abundant elastic fibers
● consists of collagen and elastic among collagen fibers.
tissue but is not a typical e.g. vocal cords walls
connective tissue of large arteries elastic
ligaments
Cartilage
● is composed of cartilage cells or
chondrocytes

Types:
A. Hyaline
● most abundant of the
cartilages and it covers bones,
forms joints, costal cartilages
that attach ribs to sternum
C. Elastic
● contains elastic fibers that
appear as coiled fibers among
bundles of collagen fibers. e.g.
external ear, epiglottis and
auditory tube

B. Fibrocartilage
● has more collagen than does
hyaline cartilage. It is found in
the disks between vertebrae
& some joints
BONE
● is a hard connective tissue that
consists of living cell and a
mineralized matrix
● osteocytes are located within the
spaces in the matrix called lacunae

2 types:
A. Compact
● Solid cylindrical units, osteons
B. Cancellous
● Open, thin-scattered (latis) Muscle Tissue
● Structures - open spaces ● main characteristic is its ability to
contract or shorten

TYPES OF MUSCLE TISSUE

SKELETAL
● Striated voluntary muscle (stripes)
CARDIAC
● Striated involuntary (contractions in
the wall of heart)
SMOOTH
● No striations and involuntary (walls
of hollow organs

Blood
● Is unique because the matrix is liquid,
enabling blood cells to move through
blood vessels
Nervous Tissue
● Regulate body temperature, ● Forms the brain, spinal cord, and
circulation of vessels nerves
● Contains the very important cells
which are neurons and neuroglia
○ Neurons: impulse-conducting
○ Neuroglia: supports
● Projections: axons and dendrites
● Physically and biochemically
supported