Received: 24 May 2019 Revised: 16 December 2019 Accepted: 8 January 2020

DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12542

COMPREHENSIVE REVIEWS IN FOOD SCIENCE AND FOOD SAFETY

Valorization of byproducts from tropical fruits: Extraction

methodologies, applications, environmental, and economic
assessment: A review (Part 1: General overview of the byproducts,
traditional biorefinery practices, and possible applications)

José Villacís-Chiriboga1,2,3 Kathy Elst1 John Van Camp2 Edwin Vera3

Jenny Ruales3

1 FlemishInstitute for Technological Research

(VITO), Business Unit Separation and
Conversion Technology, Boeretang 200, 2400
Mol, Belgium
2 Departmentof Food Technology, Safety and
Health, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653,
9000 Ghent, Belgium
3 Departmentof Food Science and
Biotechnology, Ladrón de Guevara, E11-253,
P.O.BOX 17 012759, Quito, Ecuador
Correspondence
Kathy Elst, Flemish Institute for Technological
Research (VITO), Business Unit Separation
and Conversion Technology, Boeretang 200,
2400 Mol, Belgium.
Email: kathy.elst@vito.be
Funding information
EPN/PIMI 15-05, Grant/Award Number:
Evaluación de la biorefinería de subproduc-
tos del procesamiento de alimentos para la
obtención de compuestos de interés industrial;
VLIR-UOS, Grant/Award Number: Improving
Ecuadorian child nutrition by using mango
Abstract
Tropical fruits represent one of the most important crops in the world. The contin-
uously growing global market for the main tropical fruits is currently estimated at
84 million tons, of which approximately half is lost or wasted throughout the whole
processing chain. Developing novel processes for the conversion of these byproducts
into value-added products could provide a viable way to manage this waste prob-
lem, aiming at the same time to create a sustainable economic growth within a bio-
economy perspective. Given the ever-increasing concern about sustainability, com-
plete valorization through a bio-refinery approach, that is, zero waste concept, as well
as the use of green techniques is therefore of utmost importance. This paper aims to
report the status on the valorization of tropical fruit byproducts within a bio-refinery
frame, via the application of traditional methodologies, and with specific attention
to the extraction of phenolics and carotenoids as bioactive compounds. The differ-
ent types of byproducts, and their content of bioactives is reviewed, with a special
emphasis on the lesser-known tropical fruits. Moreover, the bioactivity of the differ-
ent types of extracts and their possible application as a resource for different sectors
(food, pharmaceutical, and environmental sciences) is discussed. Consequently, this
review presents the concepts of tropical fruit biorefineries, and the potential applica-
tions of the isolated fractions.

KEYWORDS
biorefinery, tropical fruits, valorization, waste, zero waste

1 I N T RO D U C T I O N Ouchemoukh et al., 2017). As a consequence of this knowl-

Fruits are largely consumed for the demonstrated health ben-
efits that are attributed to their intake, in addition to their
taste and personal preferences. A diet rich in phytochemi-
cals has shown to provide a high concentration of antioxidant
compounds with several subsequent health benefits (Amessis-
edge, in the last years there has been a significant incre-
ment in fruit trade and acquisition. Specifically, consumption
of tropical fruits is increasing on domestic and international
markets due to growing recognition of its nutritional and
therapeutic value (Bhat & Paliyath, 2016). The exotic char-
acter, high nutrient, and nutraceutical concentration make

Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf. 2020;1–43. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/crf3 © 2020 Institute of Food Technologists® 1
2 VALORIZATION OF TROPICAL FRUITS…
FIGURE 1 Application of Biorefinery concepts to valorize food waste in a circular economy approach. Adapted from Carmona-Cabello,
Garcia, Leiva-Candia, and Dorado (2018)
tropical fruits a very interesting opportunity for local growers
to gain access to special markets (R. Alves, de Brito, Rufino,
& Sampaio, 2008).
Today, food security is an increasing problem due to the
depletion of natural resources and increasing population,
which has led to a gap between production and consumption.
It is therefore of utmost importance that the produced raw
materials are maximally used. From initial agricultural
production down to final household consumption, around
1.3 billion tons of food is lost or wasted (around 35%),
which generates a carbon footprint of 3.3 billion tons of
CO2 Eq. In Europe and North-America, per capita food waste
ranges between 95 and 115 kg per year; while between 6 and
11 kg per year of food are wasted in sub-Saharan Africa and
South/Southeast Asia (FAO, 2015; Gustavsson, Cederberg,
Sonesson, van Otterdijk, & Meybeck, 2011). On average,
107 kg/p/y (kilograms per year per person) of food waste
are generated in developed countries, while 56 kg/p/y are
generated in developing countries (Thi, Kumar, & Lin, 2015).
In Latin America, 127 million tons of food are lost annually,
causing an estimated loss of $940 billion per year (FAO,
2016b).
To counterbalance the waste issue, administer environmen-
tal sustainability and overcome the economic development
model “take, make, and dispose,” the concept of circular econ-
omy has been introduced by the application of sustainable and
profitable technologies to utilize byproducts (Maina, Kach-
rimanidou, & Koutinas, 2017). Transforming food byprod-
ucts into a resource triggers a major opportunity to switch
from a linear to a closed loop economic system (Figure 1).
In addition, it is one of the most promising strategies to link
the population with the idea and practices of circular econ-
omy (Borrello, Caracciolo, Lombardi, Pascucci, & Cembalo,
2017). In modern food waste management, the valorization of
byproducts is a way of recapturing their valuable compounds
and/or developing new products with a market value (Euro-
pean Comission, 2014; Otles, Despoudi, Bucatariu, & Kar-
tal, 2015). As a result, the food industry, according to Aladić
et al. (2015), seeks for the minimization of the environmen-
tal impact, the reduction of release of toxic substances, and
the efficient use of feedstock toward the production of high-
quality foodstuffs.
In the specific case of tropical fruits, well-known for
their high amounts of health promoting bioactives as com-
pared to traditional fruits (Bhat & Paliyath, 2016; Gorin-
stein et al., 2011), additional impetus exists to utilize their
unused parts. Typical bioactives of tropical fruits are mainly
polyphenols and carotenoids (Silva et al., 2014), that are
present in all the anatomical and morphological parts of the
fruits. Although the concentration varies among the differ-
ent fractions (Lachowicz, Oszmiański, Wiśniewski, Seliga,
& Pluta, 2019), studies have stated that the concentration
of such compounds is often significantly higher in the dis-
carded fractions than in the edible parts, as summarized by
Banerjee et al. (2017). Therefore, these inedible parts, which
are generally regarded as waste with little value in the fruit
industry, may be valorized, in order to improve the economic
benefits and decrease the negative environmental problems
generated. More specifically, they can be used as a source
of health promoting compounds. In this line, Eggersdorfer
and Wyss (2018) reported that the intake of carotenoids, in
addition to beneficial effects on eye health and antioxidant
activity, also produce improvements in cognitive function and
cardiovascular health, and may help to prevent some types
VALORIZATION OF TROPICAL FRUITS…
of cancer. Moreover, investigations suggest that phenolics
and polysaccharides in tropical fruits can improve lipid
metabolism and prevent the oxidation of low density lipopro-
tein cholesterol (LDL-C), which hinders the development of
atherosclerosis (Maia et al., 2019; Sun et al., 2011). Nev-
ertheless, in order to maximize their valorization, it is of
utmost importance to have adequate and precise informa-
tion on their compound composition, nutritional content, and
bioactive performance to make a linkage with the potential
application.
According to data presented by FAO (2016a), the global
annual production of the main tropical fruits is projected
to grow by 3% annually over the next decade, to about
116 million tons in 2024. Around 50% of this volume is com-
posed of peels and seeds, which are typically disposed as
wastes (Cheok et al., 2018). Besides the utilization per se as a
new resource, the environmental impact of tropical fruit dis-
posal is another driving factor to focus on a zero-waste supply
chain. Several scientific reports address the adverse effects
that incorrect organic waste disposal produce in the envi-
ronment. Although not specifically addressing tropical fruits,
they provide an insight on why the release into de environment
should be avoided. Reutter, Lant, Reynolds, and Lane (2017),
found that, in Australia, food waste represents 9% of the total
water use and 6% of the greenhouse gas emissions after ana-
lyzing the environmental and socio-economic impacts of food
systems. In a study about the estimation of the global food
supply losses, Kummu et al. (2012) indicated that 24% of
total freshwater resources used in food crop production, 23%
of total global cropland area, and 23% of total global fertil-
izer use are lost in waste. For tropical fruits, such a detailed
assessment is not available yet, partially due to their exten-
sive cultivation within very small agronomical entities (FAO,
2016a). Nevertheless, it is clear that such ecological impact
on the production resources has to be avoided by all means,
also considering that these fruits are produced in the vulner-
able tropical and subtropical areas that comprise more than
half of the world’s vegetation.
It is well known that the application of biorefinery tech-
niques may allow a complete utilization of biomass whereby
the compounds obtained have potential profitable applica-
tions, either in the food, feed, or environmental sectors. There-
fore, taking advantage of the substances present in the dif-
ferent fractions of tropical fruits might form the basis of a
growing bio-economy, a concept that developed as a response
to the ever-increasing global issues and concerns about sus-
tainability. Moreover, the industrial competitiveness and pros-
perity can be improved, by providing biobased products and
energy through economic, social, and environmental sustain-
able processes, that in turn can offer a wide variety of food-
stuffs or services with high economic importance (Geissdoer-
fer, Savaget, Bocken, & Hultink, 2017; Trigo et al., 2013). In
3
this line, several approaches have been proposed for the val-
orization of the unused parts of food in various sectors (such
as bio-materials, wastewater treatment) including the recov-
ery and isolation of bioactive compounds, like carotenoids
and phenolic compounds, which are highly important for the
food industry (G. Kaur, Uisan, Ong, & Ki Lin, 2018; Nayak &
Bhushan, 2019; Naziri, Nenadis, Mantzouridou, & Tsimidou,
2014).
In light of the above mentioned arguments, the present
review aims to report the recent developments to valorize
byproducts of tropical fruits in a biorefinery approach. For this
purpose, along the paper, an overview of the bioactive con-
tent, the extraction methodologies, and the bioactivity assess-
ment are given for the different fractions from tropical fruits
that are discarded as byproducts. Moreover, an outlook sum-
marizing the trends and gaps on valorization of byproducts
is provided.
2 TROPICAL FRUITS:
DEF INITIO N, CH ARACTERIST I C S ,
AND IM P O RTANCE
In a straight sense, tropical fruits are defined as fruits pro-
duced in warm and humid regions, which are located between
the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn, with an
average temperature of around 27 ◦ C (Po, 2007; Wongs-
Aree & Noichinda, 2014). Depending on the fresh volume
demanded in markets worldwide, they can be classified into
major, minor, and underutilized groups, as shown in Table 1.
According to data presented by FAO (2016a), tropical
fruits production, trade, and consumption have increased
significantly.
The world production of the four most traded fruits (mango,
pineapple, avocado, and papaya) was around 84 million tons
between 2012 and 2014 and is expected to rise to about
116 million tons in 2024. Almost the entire world produc-
tion took place in underdeveloped countries. Breaking down
this information by area, 60% originated in Asia, 25% in
Latin America, and 14% in Africa (see Figure 2). The pro-
duction grew more steadily in Asia as compared to Latin
America that experienced stagnation and even is expected
to have a marginal fall in the years to come. In Europe
and the United States, on the other hand, hardly no tropi-
cal fruits are produced and they rely mostly on import to
supply the domestic markets. With net imported amounts
between 2,100 and 3,100 thousand tons per year, the avail-
ability of the main tropical fruits remain nevertheless lim-
ited as compared to the major producing areas like Asia and
Latin America.
Given the growing awareness on the effect of food
consumption on health, tropical fruits have become an
4 VALORIZATION OF TROPICAL FRUITS…

TABLE 1 Tropical fruits production in the world

Major tropical fruits
• Banana (Musa AAA Cavendish)
• Mango (Mangifera indica)
• Pineapple (Ananas comosus)
• Citrus
• Papaya (Carica papaya)
• Avocado (Persea americana)
• Watermelon (Citrullus lanatus)
Minor tropical fruits Underutilized
• Acai (Euterpe oleracea) • Abiu (Pouteria caimito)
• Acerola (Malpighia punicifolia) • Bael (Aegle marmelos)
• Breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis) • Baobab (Adansonia digitata)
• Cempedak (Ar. integer) • Bilimbi (Av. bilimbi)
• Cherimoya (Annona cherimola) • Canistel (P. campechiana)
• Coconut (Cocos nucifera) • Cape gooseberry (P. peruviana)
• Date (Phoenix dactylifera) • Cherry Terengganu (Lepisanthes alata)
• Dragon fruit/pitaya (Hylocereus spp.) • Indian blackberry (S. cumini)
• Durian (Durio zibethinus) • Indian gooseberry (Phyllanthus emblica)
• Duku, langsat, duku langsat, and dokong • Indian jujube (Ziziphus mauritiana)
(Lansium domesticum) • Jaboticaba (Myrciaria cauliflora)
• Feijoa (Acca sellowiana) • Jelly melon (Cucumis metuliferus)
• Fig (Ficus carica) • Karanda (Carissa congesta)
• Guava (Psidium guajava) • Keranji (Dialium indum)
• Jack fruit (Ar. heterophyllus) • Miracle fruit (Synsepalum dulcificum)
• Longan (Euphoria longan) • Nutmeg (Myristica fragrans)
• Lychee (Litchi chinensis) • Sibu olive (Canarium odontophyllum)
• Mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana) • Tampoi (Baccaurea macrocarpa)
• Pomegranate (Punica granatum) • Terap/marang (Ar. odoratissimus)
• Passion fruit (Passiflora edulis)
• Prickly pear (Opuntia spp.)
• Pulasan (Nephelium mutabile)
• Rambutan (N. lappaceum)
• Starfruit (Averrhoa carambola)
• Sapodilla (Manilkara zapota)
• Salak (Salacca zalacca)
• Santol (Sandoricum koetjape)
• Soursop (An. muricata)
• Sweetsop (An. squamosa)
• Tahitian apple/Ambarella (Spondias dulcis)
• Tamarind (Tamarindus indica)
• Tomatillo (Physalis philadelphica)
• Wax apple (Syzygium samarangense)

Modified from: Ding (2017)

essential part of the basic diet in most regions of the world,
due to their characteristic high concentration of bioactive
compounds, vitamins, fibers, and others (Table 2). Over-
all, phenolic compounds, carotenoids, and ascorbic acid
are the bioactives that predominate within the fruit matrix,
although the individual concentrations of these compounds
varies depending on the fruit type. Overall, polyphenols
are the most abundant ones. Altogether, this information
should contribute to new evidence for the high interest
of bioactive compounds from tropical fruits for nutritional
strategies.
3 WA STES AND BY PRODUCTS
FROM TROPICAL FRUITS AND
THEIR CURRENT VA LORIZATION
ST R AT E G I E S
With the idea of giving a second application to the unused
parts of tropical fruits as a source of valuable compounds for
industry, research has been developed, and in general options
like livestock feeding (Dou, Toth, & Westendorf, 2018), com-
posting (Guidoni et al., 2018), anaerobic digestion (De Clercq,
Wen, Gottfried, Schmidt, & Fei, 2017), biofuel production
VALORIZATION OF TROPICAL FRUITS…
FIGURE 2 Production, net import and domestic availability (in
thousands of tonnes per year) of the main tropical fruits (avocado,
mango, papaya and pineapple) in function of the geographic area. The
data were derived from FAO (2019)
(Rago, Surroop, & Mohee, 2018), and landfilling (Pahla,
Ntuli, & Muzenda, 2018) have been studied. At the same
time, authors like Lousada Júnior, Correia da Costa, Miranda
Neiva, and Rodríguez (2006) explained that the food industry
makes huge investments to increase their processing capacity
throughout the supply chain, aiming to decrease the genera-
tion of byproducts, which in many cases are considered opera-
tional cost for companies or source of environmental contam-
ination.
3.1 Difference between waste and byproducts
The production, preparation and consumption of food, and
thus also tropical fruits, produces large volumes of liquid and
solid waste and byproducts, which in turn may trigger disposal
and pollution problems, as well as losses of valuable biomass
and nutrients.
Although the terms “Waste” and “Byproduct” are com-
monly used to describe the same problem, there are differ-
ences between them. Burgos, Valdés, and Jiménez (2016),
defined food supply chain waste as “the organic mate-
rial produced for human consumption which is discarded,
lost or degraded primarily at the manufacturing and retail
stages,” while Murugan, Chandrasekaran, Karthikeyan, and
Al-Sohaibani (2013) defined a byproduct as “materials that
are created by the manufacturing process […] which are
removed and disposed to give the desired product quality or
consistency.” In a broader perspective, the European Union
(2016) defined bio-waste as “biodegradable garden and park
waste, food and kitchen waste from households, restaurants,
caterers, and retail premises, and comparable waste from food
processing plants. It does not include forestry or agricul-
tural residues, manure, sewage sludge, or other biodegrad-
able waste such as natural textiles, paper, or processed wood.
It also excludes those byproducts of food production that
never become waste.”; while byproduct was defined as “a
substance or object, resulting from a production process, for
5
which the primary aim is not the production of that item.
Byproduct can come from a wide range of business sectors,
and can have very different environmental impacts. An incor-
rect classification could be the cause of environmental dam-
age or unnecessary costs for business.”
Given that this review is focusing on the efficient use of the
whole biomass, from here onward, the term byproduct will be
applied for referring to the unused part of the fruits that has a
potential value.
3.2 Byproducts of tropical fruits and their
utilization
Very little information is available on the byproducts and pre-
cise losses that are generated during the production and pro-
cessing of tropical fruits. Moreover, it is difficult to establish
comparisons between countries or even regions, since many
countries do not set out statistics at a national level. Even if
data are available, the methodology and definitions used for
each of the categories is often either not known or not con-
sistent (Hoornweg & Bhada-Tata, 2012). For tropical fruits,
there is an additional complexity that a significant part of the
production takes place in very small household plots for which
detailed information is lacking.
What is clear, is that the amount of waste produced at each
stage of the food supply chain significantly varies between
world regions (Figure 3). Thus, in developed countries such
as the United States or countries from the European Union,
a significant food disposal occurs at the consumption stage
(≈15% to 20%), while the waste generated during process-
ing is almost negligible. On the other hand, in underdevel-
oped and developing countries, most of the loses are produced
during the processing stage (15% to 20%), while only around
4% to10% of the fruits are lost at the consumption stage. More-
over, in 2011, fruits were lost worldwide at a rate nearly 50%
higher than 16 years earlier (World Bank, 2017). Several fac-
tors influence the production of waste in urban populations:
gross domestic product, the quantity of solid waste transport
vehicles, collection area of solid waste, the per capita dispos-
able income of urban residents, policies and taxes, inflation
rate, the solid waste treatment rate, urbanization, and socioe-
conomic status (Jaligot & Chenal, 2018). However, also in
developed countries, consumers are more demanding about
the esthetic, nutritional, and quality conditions of products
(Loebnitz & Grunert, 2015; Symmank, Zahn, & Rohm, 2018;
White, Lin, Dahl, & Ritchie, 2016).
Moreover, significant fractions of tropical fruits are com-
posed of inedible parts. Around 52% of the fruit is discarded
as byproducts, whereby 42% correspond to rind/skin and 10%
to seeds (Cheok et al., 2018), although other factors con-
tribute to a major or minor byproducts flow. On the other hand,
according to data presented by van Rijswick (2018), the global
market development for whole fresh fruit was 500 million tons

TABLE 2 Composition of the edible part of tropical fruits
Fruit Fruit composition [%] FW*
Açaí (Euterpe Moisture: 80.0%
oleracea Mart.) Ash: 0.4%
Carbohydrates: 51.9%
Lipids: 4.9%
Proteins: 1.00%
Fibers: 2.4%
Acerola (Malpighia Moisture: 92.6% to 95%
emarginata) Ash: 4.91% to 5.23%
Carbohydrates: 0.43%
Lipids: 0.23% to 0.80%
Proteins: 0.21% to 1.20%
Fibers: 0.16% to 1.63%
Avocado (Persea americana Moisture: 72.60%
Mill.) Ash: 1.30%
Carbohydrates: 4.90%
Lipids: 16.48%
Proteins: 2.30%
Fibers: 2.42%
Banana (Musa paradisiaca) Moisture: 74.91%
Ash: 2.33% to 2.54%
Carbohydrates: 12.21%
Lipids: 0.33%
Proteins: 1.09%
Fibers: 2.6%
Camu-camu (Myrciaria Moisture: 94.1% to 94.4%
dubia) Ash: 0.2% to 0.3%
Carbohydrates: 1.28% to 1.48%
Lipids: 0.2% to 0.3%
Proteins: 0.4% to 0.5%
Fibers: 0.1% to 0.6%
Citrus fruits (Citrus spp.) Moisture: 83% to 90%
Ash: 0.29% to 0.54%
Carbohydrates: 9% to 13%
Lipids: 0.05% to 0.4%
Proteins: 0.8% to 2.1%
Fibers: 0.3% to 2.3%
Bioactives: type
Phenolics (mg GAEa /g DWb ):
92.9 to 247.7
Carotenoids (μg/g DW): 963.7
Carotenoids (μg 𝛽 - CEc /g): 4.0
Ascorbic Acid (mg AAd /g):
8.63 to 14.65
Phenolics (mg GAE/g): 15.62
to 26.31
Phenolics and polar compounds
(mg/g DW): 0.39 to 0.45
Carotenoids (μg/g FW): 12.78
Phenolics (μg GAE/g DW): 3.9
to 4.1
Carotenoids (μg/g DW): 266.5
Phenolics (mg/g FWe ): 1.85
Carotenoids (μg/g FW): 3.54 to
10.95
Phenolics (mg/g DW) 0.43 to
0.78
Carotenoids (μg/g DW): 22.71
6
Pulp and
Peel (%) Seed (%) other (%) Reference
– 90 – (M. de Oliveira & Schwartz,
2018; J. Kang et al., 2012;
Schauss, 2010)
– 35 5 (Lousada Júnior et al., 2006;
Marques, Corrêa, Lino,
Abreu, & Simao, 2013;
Moura et al., 2018; Rezende
et al., 2017)
8 to 11 13 to 24 69 to 76 (Cowan & Wolstenholme,
2003; Jacobo-Velázquez &
Hernández-Brenes, 2012;
López-Cobo et al., 2016;
Rodríguez-Carpena,
Morcuende, Andrade, Kylli,
& Estévez, 2011)
30 to 38 – – (Castelo-Branco et al., 2017;
González-Montelongo,
Gloria Lobo, & González,
2010; Pareek, 2016; Qamar
& Shaikh, 2018; Vu,
Scarlett, & Vuong, 2016)
38 to 40 – 7 to 10 (J. Castro et al., 2018; Fidelis
et al., 2018; Zanatta &
Mercadante, 2007)
60 to 65 0 to 10 30 to 35 (Izquierdo & Sendra, 2003;
Lado, Cuellar, Rodrigo, &
Zacarías, 2016; Mamma &
Christakopoulos, 2014; Y.
Sun, Tao, Huang, Ye, & Sun,
2019)
(Continues)
VALORIZATION OF TROPICAL FRUITS…
TABLE 2 (Continued)
Fruit
Cactus fruits:
Dragon fruit (Hyelocereus
spp)
Pitaya (Stenocereus spp)
Prickly pear (Opuntia spp.)
Durian (Durio zibethinus)
Guava (Psidium guajava)
Mango (Mangifera indica)
Papaya (Carica papaya)
Passion fruit (Passiflora
edulis sp.)
Fruit composition [%] FW*
Moisture: 83% to 89%
Ash: 0.4% to 0.68%
Carbohydrates: 8.3% to 16.04%
Lipids: 0.1% to 0.61%
Proteins: 0.16% to 0.5%
Fibers: 0.3% to 0.9%
Moisture: 58% to 70.9%
Ash: 0.8%
Carbohydrates: 15% to 36.1%
Lipids: 1.2% to 4.3%
Proteins: 2% to 3.3%
Fibers: 1.2% to 1.9%
Moisture: 74% to 87%
Ash: 0.43% to 1.39%
Carbohydrates: 5% to 14.32%
Lipids: 0.1% to 0.95%
Proteins: 0.35% to 2.55%
Fibers: 2.8% to 5.5%
Moisture: 81.71%
Ash: 0.5%
Carbohydrates: 17%
Lipids: 0.27%
Proteins: 0.51%
Fibers: 1.8%
Moisture: 87%
Ash: 0.03% to 0.42%
Carbohydrates: 20.3% to 23.5%
Lipids: 0.2% to 0.5%
Proteins: 1.01% to 1.9%
Fibers: 0.9% to 1.3%
Moisture: 55% to 79%
Ash: 0.49% to 1.9%
Carbohydrates: 13.12%
Lipids: 0.12%
Proteins: 0.54%
Fibers: 1.46%
Pulp and
Bioactives: type Peel (%) Seed (%) other (%) Reference
Phenolics (μM GACb equ./g): 18.5 to 1.3 to 1.5 60 to 80 (Le Bellec & Vaillant, 2011;
5.6 to 7.4 38. 7 Mercado-Silva, 2018)
Vitamin C (g/100 mL): 3.2 to
5.8
Betacyanin (mg/L): 530 to 717
Phenolics (mg/g DW): 2.31 to 50 to 60 20 to 25 – (Arancibia-Avila et al., 2008;
VALORIZATION OF TROPICAL FRUITS…
3.74 Charoenkiatkul, Thiyajai, &
Carotenoids (μg/g DW): 2.65 to Judprasong, 2016; Mariod,
22.48 Saeed Mirghani, & Hussein,
2017; Siriphanich, 2011)
Phenolics (mg/g DW): 8.82 to 20 – 30 (Gill, 2016; Rodríguez Medina
8.93 & Valdés-Infante Herrero,
2016; Rojas-Garbanzo,
Winter, Montero,
Zimmermann, & Schieber,
2019)
Phenolics (mg GAE/g DW): 7 to 24 45 to 85 5 to 10 (Arscott, 2013; da Silva
0.15 to 5.25 Sauthier et al., 2019; Jahurul
Carotenoids (μg/g FW): 5.23 et al., 2015; Yahia, 2011)
Phenolics (mg/g FW): 1.8 to 20 15 to 20 (Annegowda & Bhat, 2016;
1.72 Othman, 2009; Schweiggert,
Carotenoids (μg/g FW): 1.30 to Steingass, Mora, Esquivel, &
62.14 Carle, 2011)
Phenolics (mg/g FW): 132 to 90 8 – (Pertuzatti, Sganzerla, Jacques,
2053 Barcia, & Zambiazi, 2015;
Carotenoids (mg/g FW): 0.14 Rotta, Rodrigues, Jardim,
to 0.25 Maldaner, & Visentainer,
2019; Schotsmans & Fischer,
2011)
(Continues)
7
TABLE 2 (Continued)
8

Pulp and
Fruit Fruit composition [%] FW* Bioactives: type Peel (%) Seed (%) other (%) Reference
Pineapple (Ananas comosus) Moisture: 86% Phenolics (mg GAE/g FW): 50 – 25 (Ngamwonglumlert &
Ash: 1.1% 0.25 to 0.73 Devahastin, 2019; G.-M.
Carbohydrates: 13.12% Carotenoids (μg/g FW): 0.30 to Sun, Zhang, Soler, &
Lipids: 0.12% 2.44 (𝛽-Carotene) Marie-Alphonsine, 2016;
Proteins: 0.54% Wali, 2019)
Fibers: 11.84% to 13.76%
Pomegranate (Punica Moisture: 80.97% Phenolics (mg/g DW): 0.16 39 to 53 8 to 12 35 to 50 (Pande & Akoh, 2016;
granatum) Ash: 0.61% Venkitasamy, Zhao, Zhang,
Carbohydrates: 18.75% & Pan, 2019)
Lipids: 0.3%
Proteins: 0.95%
Fibers: 0.6%
Soursop (Annona muricata Moisture: 82.8% Carotenoids (μg/g DW): 6.49 to 20 5 to 8.5 67.5 (Badrie & Schauss, 2010;
L.) Ash: 0.60% 8.39 Jiménez et al., 2014; Leite
Carbohydrates: 14.63% Phenolics (mg GAE/g DW): Neta et al., 2019; Sanusi &
Lipids: 0.97% 1.57 to 1.63 Abu Bakar, 2018;
Proteins: 1% Solís-Fuentes et al., 2011)
Fibers: 0.79%
Tamarind (Tamarindus Moisture: 28.2% to 52% Phenolics (mg/g DW): 2.82 to 11 to 30 25 to 40 30 to 50 (Azad, 2018; Saideswara Rao
indica) Ash: 2.9% to 3.3% 6.54 & Mary Mathew, 2012; L.
Carbohydrates: 51.5% to 67.4% Carotenoids (μg/g DW): 0.012 Silva, Figueiredo, et al.,
Lipids: 0.1% to 0.014 (𝛽-Carotene) 2014)
Proteins: 2.4% to 3.1%
Fibers: 5.6%
Taperebá (Spondias mombin Moisture: 83% to 89% Phenolics (mg/g FW): 2.60 to 16 33 – (Bora, Narain, Holschun, & da
L.) Ash: 0.41% to 0.76% 5.79 S. Vasconcelos, 1991;
Carbohydrates: 4.54% to 7.61% Carotenoids (μg/g FW): 47.12 Mattietto & Matta, 2011;
Lipids: 0.26% to 2.1% to 50.27 Tiburski, Rosenthal, Deliza,
Proteins: 0. % to 1.06% de Oliveira Godoy, &
Fibers: 1% to 1.87% Pacheco, 2011)
Watermelon (Citrullus Moisture: 92% 30 2 68 (Dammak et al., 2019; Logaraj,
lanatus) Ash: - 2011; Schaffer & Paris,
Carbohydrates: 7.2% 2003)
Lipids: 0.4%
Proteins: 0.6%
Fibers: 0.5%
a GAE = Gallic Acid Equivalent
b
DW = Dry Weight
c
CE = Carotenoids Equivalent
d AA = Ascorbic Acid
VALORIZATION OF TROPICAL FRUITS…

e
FW = Fresh weight
VALORIZATION OF TROPICAL FRUITS…
FIGURE 3 Losses throughout the food supply chain in function of the geographical area. The data were derived from Gustavsson et al. (2011)
in 2017, while 290 million tons of vegetables were produced
in 2016 (FAOSTAT, 2016). With this information in mind,
it is clear that byproducts resulting from tropical fruit pro-
duction do not entail a high percentage compared with other
crops. However, based on the nutraceutical properties, their
valorization should be a major focus of research.
Around the world, there is a significant increment in the
demand for phytochemicals of vegetal origin (Singh, 2006),
especially for food related applications. As mentioned above
and also summarized in Table 2, tropical fruits are rich in
these phytochemicals and provide a promising source of
valuable substances. Moreover, tropical fruit byproducts are
also rich sources of different kinds of bioactive compounds,
mainly phenolics, with important bioactivities (Table 3).
Such compounds have been isolated by organic solvents for
a further application as a raw material for nutraceutical and
nutritional food development (Ningrum et al., 2018), with
possible uses against chronic diseases and/or for application
as food additives. Even if not the focus of the present
review, more information of the non-food applications can
be found in Appendix A. Even though several scientific
reports demonstrate the possible ways for valorizing tropical
fruit byproducts, there is a clear lack in information. Based
on existing information, methodologies for efficient use of
byproducts of tropical fruits as a source of bioactives, fibers,
oils, and other valuable elements, are detailed below:
3.2.1 Açaí (Euterpe oleracea Mart.)
Açaí is well known for its high concentration of flavones (see
Table 2), and has extensively been tested for its hydroxyl rad-
ical, superoxide anion scavenging capacity, and pronounced
anti-inflammatory activity. Both in vitro activities have been
9
proven to be the highest of any fruit, vegetable, or nut (Hein-
rich, Dhanji, & Casselman, 2011).
The main byproduct of açaí (≈90% of fresh biomass, see
Table 2), are the seeds, which have been found to be very rich
in proanthocyanidins (Table 3). Barros et al. (2015) performed
an extraction of these compounds by cold water maceration,
while da Costa et al. (2017) followed a hydro-alcoholic extrac-
tion of boiling water and cold ethanol. The first study demon-
strated the presence of twenty two compounds assigned to the
flavan-3-ols group. Nevertheless, it was not possible to estab-
lish the position of the linkage between flavanol units nor dif-
ferentiating between isomeric catechins. In the second study,
polymeric proanthocyanidins, catechin, and epicatechin
were described in the hydro-alcoholic extract of açaí seed.
The efficiency of both procedures was illustrated by a high
cytotoxic activity, especially in the cervical carcinoma cell
line, and a potential protection of renal injury and dysfunc-
tion, respectively, probably through the antihypertensive and
antioxidant effects of the extracts. On the other hand, Melo,
Arrivetti, Alencar, and Skibsted (2016) showed that after
purifying the hydro-alcoholic extract of seeds with resins, the
concentration of phenolic compounds increased, which was
reflected in the protection of unsaturated lipids in liposomes
or in oil/water emulsions. However, a prooxidant activity was
observed when the concentration of extract was increased,
possibly because some molecules acted as a substrate to be
oxidized or acted as oxidants, hereby contributing to adduct
formation.
3.2.2 Acerola (Malpighiaceae emarginata)
Acerola is a rich source of vitamin C, with around 1 g per
100 g (Table 2). Therefore, in a review performed by Belwal
et al. (2018), several bioactive properties of acerola, including
 10

TABLE 3 Valuable compounds with bioactive properties in non-edible parts from tropical fruits
Fruit Fraction Main compounds Extraction method Bioactivity Reference
Açaí (Euterpe oleracea Seeds Phenolics (mg/g DW): 490.91 to 491.07, Organic solvent extraction and Antioxidant (Melo et al., 2016)
Mart.) mainly anthocyanins and flavonoids purification with chromatographic
techniques or resins.
Acerola (Malpighia Seed and Total anthocyanins (μg/g): 0.14 to 2.3 Ultrasound assisted extraction with Antioxidant activity (Rezende et al., 2017)
emarginata) peel Carotenoids (μg 𝛽-CE/g): 0.86 to 18.27 ethanol as solvent
Ascorbic acid (mg/g): 1.04 to 8.09
Phenolics (mg GAE/g): 0.047 to 0.128
Total flavonoids (mg QE/g): 1.61 to 5.83
Avocado (Persea Seed Phenolics (mg GAE/g DW): 5.7 to 88.2 Hydro-alcoholic extraction Antioxidant activity (Araújo, Rodriguez-Jasso, Ruiz,
emericana Mill.) Pintado, & Aguilar, 2018)
Peel Phenolics (mg GAE/g DW): 15.6 to 172.2
Banana (Musa Peel Phenolics (mg GAE/g DW): 21.03 Successive extractions with organic Antioxidant and (X. Fu et al., 2018; Vu et al., 2018)
paradisiaca) Flavonoids (μg/g FW): 370 to 450 solvents antimicrobial
Anthocyanins (μg/g FW): 154.57 to 23.75 activities
Carotenoids (μg/g FW): 29.64 to 44.15
Camu-camu (Myrciaria Seeds and Ascorbic acid (mg/g DW): 5.1 to 11.8 Hydro-alcoholic extraction Antioxidant activity, (Azevêdo, Borges, Genovese,
dubia) shells Total anthocyanins (mg eq. cyanidin neuroprotective Correia, & Vattem, 2015; de
3-glycoside/g DW): 0.5 to 1.9 Araújo Padilha et al., 2018; de
Total phenolics (mg GAE/g DW): 13.5 to Azevêdo et al., 2014;
21.6 Kaneshima et al., 2016)
Total carotenoids (μg/g DW): 7.48 to 14.7
Citrus fruits (Citrus Peels Phenolics (μg/g FW): 282 to 6923 Hydro-alcoholic extraction Antioxidant (Rafiq et al., 2018; Shofinita,
spp.) 𝛽-carotene (μg/g DW): 0.445 to 3.972 Supercritical fluid extraction Feng, & Langrish, 2015;
Citric acid (meq/g DW): 0.01 to 0.04 Soxhlet with deionized water Tsitsagi, Ebralidze, Chkhaidze,
Rubashvili, & Tsitsishvili, 2018)
Seeds Phenolics (mg GAE/g DW): 0.68 to 2.11 Supercritical fluid extraction Cytotoxic activity (Castillo-Herrera et al., 2015;
Flavonoids (mg CE/g DW): 1.31 to 2.52 Organic solvent extraction Antioxidant activity Moulehi, Bourgou, Ourghemmi,
Tannins (mg CE/g DW) 0.12 to 0.37 & Tounsi, 2012)
Dragon fruit Peel Betacyanins (μg/g FW): 0.49 to 0.52 Hydro-alcoholic extraction (Priatni & Pradita, 2015; Som
(Hyelocereus spp) Phenolics (mg GAE/g DW): 0.18 to 0.48 et al., 2019)
Durian (Durio Peel Phenolics (mg GAE/g FW): 34.6 Subcritical water extraction Antioxidant activity (Feng, Wang, Yi, Yang, & He,
zibethinus) 2016; Shitu, Muhammad,
Yoshida, & Izhar, 2016)
(Continues)
VALORIZATION OF TROPICAL FRUITS…
TABLE 3 (Continued)
Fruit Fraction Main compounds Extraction method Bioactivity Reference
Seeds Proanthocyanidin (mg ECE/g DW): 1.395 Hydro-alcoholic extraction and Antioxidant activity (Deng et al., 2012; Liu et al., 2013)
Total phenolics (mg GAE/g FW): 3.41 to purification with chromatographic
3.93 column
Guava (Psidium Seeds, skin Phenolics (mg/g DW): 0.12 Hydro-alcoholic extraction with Antioxidant activity (Lima, Ferreira, Vitali, & Block,
guajava) and pulp ultrasound assisted extraction 2019; Rojas-Garbanzo et al.,
leftovers 2019)
VALORIZATION OF TROPICAL FRUITS…

Mango (Mangifera Peel Phenolics (mg GAE/g): 46.41 to 133.71 Acidic hydro-alcoholic extraction Antiproliferative activity (Mugwagwa & Chimphango,
indica) Anthocyanins (mg/g DW): 0.03 to 0.39 Supercritical fluid extraction against human colon 2019; Sánchez-Camargo et al.,
Carotenoids (mg all-trans-𝛽-carotene adenocarcinoma cell 2019)
equivalent/g): 1.22 to 2.01 line HT-29
Antioxidant activity
Seed Phenolics (mg GAE/g): 5.05 to 143.79 Pressurized liquid extraction with (Ballesteros-Vivas et al., 2019)
Flavonoids (mg QE/g DW): 0.08 to 1.21 organic solvents
Papaya (Carica papaya) Peel Phenolics (mg GAE/g DW): 7.32 to 43.79 Different solvents tested to evaluate Scavenging activity (Asghar et al., 2016;
𝛽-Carotene (μg/g DW): 0.15 the best one Ovando-Martínez et al., 2018;
Ascorbic acid (mg AAEa /g DW): 1.87 to Pavithra, Suchiritha Devi,
3.01 Suneetha W, & Durga Rani,
2017)
Seeds Phenolics (mg GAE/g DW): 0.31 to 43.42 Different solvents tested to evaluate Scavenging activity, (Asghar et al., 2016;
Ascorbic acid (mg AAE/g DW): 0.20 the best one cancer Ovando-Martínez et al., 2018;
chemoprevention N. Pathak et al., 2014; Sofi
et al., 2016)
Passion fruit (Passiflora Peels Phenolics (mg/g DW): 5.40 to 5.91 Hydro-alcoholic extraction, Antioxidant activity (Dos Reis, Facco, Salvador, Flôres,
edulis sp.) Total carotenoids (μg/g DW): 9.18 to 255.16 saponification with KOH for & de Oliveira Rios, 2018;
carotenoids analysis Medina et al., 2017)
Seeds Phenolics (mg GAE/g DW): 0.31 to 0.35 Organic solvent extraction Antioxidant activity (Morais et al., 2015)
Pineapple (Ananas Peels Phenolics (mg GAE/mL juice): 0.38 to 0.39 Pressing Antioxidant activity (S. Banerjee, Ranganathan, Patti,
comosus) Vitamin C (mg/mL juice): 0.395 to 0.615 Organic solvent extraction Antimicrobial activity & Arora, 2018; Difonzo et al.,
2019; Punbusayakul, Samart, &
Sudmee, 2018)
Pomegranate (Punica Peels Phenolics (mg GAE/g FW): 10.98 to 76.75 Ultrasound assisted extraction with Antioxidant (Kharchoufi et al., 2018; Sharayei,
granatum) Carotenoids (mg/g FW): 0.003 water as solvent Antimicrobial Azarpazhooh, Zomorodi, &
Organic solvent extraction Ramaswamy, 2019; Zhao, Yuan,
Yin, & Feng, 2015)
(Continues)
11
 12

TABLE 3 (Continued)
Fruit Fraction Main compounds Extraction method Bioactivity Reference
Seeds Phenolics (mg GAE/g DW): 72.4 to 73 Hydro-alcoholic extraction Antioxidant activity (Derakhshan et al., 2018; Mekni
Carotenoids (mg/g DW): 0.77 to 3.85 Organic solvent extraction Antioxidant activity et al., 2018)
Prickly pear (Opuntia Peels Phenolics (mg/g DW): 20.89 Hydro-alcoholic extraction Antioxidant activity (Melgar et al., 2017; Morales,
spp.) Organic acids (mg/g DW): 0.29 Barros, Ramírez-Moreno,
Santos-Buelga, & Ferreira,
2015)
Soursop (Annona Peels Phenolics (mg GAE/g FW): 1.86 to 1.88 Aqueous extraction Antioxidant activity (Akomolafe & Ajayi, 2015)
muricata L.) Total flavonoid (mg QUE/g FW): 0.54 Chelating power
Vitamin C (mg AAE/g FW): 19.19 to 19.39 Hydroxyl radical
scavenging
Pulps Phenolics (mg GAE/g FW): 0.18 to 0.19 Organic solvent extraction (Sousa et al., 2011)
Carotenoids (μg/g FW): 0.16 to 0.26
Vitamin C (mg/g FW): 0.64
Seeds Annonaceous acetogenins: Annonacin, Organic solvent extraction and Larvicidal activity, (Ranisaharivony, Ramanandraibe,
murisolin, annonacinone, cis-annonacin, partitioning with water and antitumoral, Rasoanaivo, Rakotovao, &
corossolin, corossolone, longifolicin, organic solvents antifungal, Lemaire, 2015; Solís-Fuentes
cis-annomontacin, goniothalamicin cytotoxicity et al., 2011)
Tamarind (Tamarindus Seeds Phenolics (g GAE/g DW): 0.207 to 0.363 Successive hydro-alcoholic Anti-lipid oxidation (Suksomtip et al., 2010)
indica) extraction Reducing power
Scavenging activity
Peels – – – –
Taperebá (Spondias Peel Phenolics (mg GAE/g DW): 28.6 to 28.7 Successive organic solvent extraction Photoprotective (Omena et al., 2012; R. V. Silva
mombin L.) Ascorbic acid (mg/g DW): 1.15 to 1.52 capacity, scavenger et al., 2016)
radical activity,
antimicrobial activity,
acetylcholinesterase
inhibition
Seeds Phenolics (mg GAE/g DW): 202.2 to 254.7 Successive hydro-alcoholic Acetylcholinesterase (Omena et al., 2012)
Ascorbic acid (mg/g DW): 1.60 to 3.32 extraction inhibition, antioxidant
activity
Watermelon (Citrullus Peel Phenolics (mg/g DW): 2.05 to 4.29 Ultrasound with acidic Antioxidant activity (Baeeri et al., 2018)
lanatus) hydro-alcoholic solvent Inhibition of tyrosinase
a
AAE = Ascorbic Acid Equivalent
VALORIZATION OF TROPICAL FRUITS…
VALORIZATION OF TROPICAL FRUITS…
anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and other activities, have been
summarized. Most of these properties have been attributed
to the antioxidant potential of vitamin C present in the fruit
matrix.
The main byproduct of acerola are the seeds, representing
around 35% of the whole fruit (Table 2). Peels are typically
an edible part in whole fruit consumption, but are also gener-
ated as a side stream during industrial processing, and as such
have been studied as byproduct. In this sense, several meth-
ods have been evaluated to extract bioactive compounds from
acerola seed and peel (Table 3). On the one hand, Rezende,
Nogueira, and Narain (2017) concluded that ultrasound is bet-
ter in extracting anthocyanins, carotenoids, ascorbic acid, phe-
nolic compounds, and flavonoids with acidified ethanol from
acerola industrial processing residue (seed and peel), in com-
parison with shaking and maceration. On the other hand, de
Oliveira et al. (2009) concluded that a high concentration of
functional compounds, mainly phenolics, were extracted with
methanol using a Soxhlet system from acerola pulp and peels,
with an extraction yield of 7.1%. In both cases, interesting
results were obtained for antioxidant and antiradical activity
of the extracts.
3.2.3 Avocado (Persea americana Mill.)
Avocado, one of the most traded tropical fruits, is rec-
ognized around the world because of its particular taste
and texture, but also as a source of health-related oils and
bioactives, as can be seen in Table 3. Avocado is also a very
important source of vitamins (especially vitamins E and
C), pigments (anthocyanins, chlorophylls, and carotenoids),
sterols, phenolic compounds, and seven-carbon sugars
and its related alcohols (D-mannoheptulose and perseitol)
(Hurtado-Fernandez, Fernandez-Gutierrez, & Carrasco-
Pancorbo, 2018). Nevertheless, 21% to 30% of the fruit is
discarded as byproducts after industrial processing (Table 2).
In these byproducts, different bioactive compounds have been
identified.
Figueroa, Borrás-Linares, Lozano-Sánchez, and Segura-
Carretero (2018b) identified via liquid chromatography cou-
pled to ultra-high-definition accurate-mass spectrometry a
total of 61 compounds belonging to 11 families in extracts
of avocado peels obtained with a mixture of EtOH:Water
(1:1, v:v) in an accelerated solvent extraction system. Over-
all, procyanidins, flavonols, hydroxybenzoic, and hydroxycin-
namic acids were the most common identified compounds.
In a similar study, the phenolic profile and other polar com-
pounds of avocado pulp, peel, and seed in two different stages
of ripeness were compared in extracts obtained with a mix-
ture of MeOH:Water (80:20, v:v) in de-fatted samples. In
general, the peel and seed of overripe avocado fruit demon-
strated high concentrations of phenolics (López-Cobo et al.,
2016). The phenolic composition of avocado seed and seed-
13
coat were characterized by Figueroa, Borrás-Linares, Lozano-
Sánchez, and Segura-Carretero (2018a). In total, 84 com-
pounds were identified from eight different classes in extracts
performed via accelerated solvent extraction with a mixture of
EtOH:water (1:1, v:v) with liquid chromatography coupled to
accurate-mass detection. Among all the compounds, 45 phe-
nolic compounds were identified, being mainly condensed
tannins, phenolic acids, and flavonoids in both fractions of
the seed. In addition, the antioxidant properties of extracts
were evaluated by the DPPH⋅, TEAC, and ORAC methods.
Avocado seed and seed coat extracts were found to have high
antioxidant activity, moreover, avocado seed coat exhibited
significantly higher antioxidant activity than the seed for all
three assays. Overall, the phenolic fraction of avocado seed
and peels has shown a reduction of less than 50% after hot-air
drying. In the peel, chlorogenic acid was the main compound,
catechin was the dominating phenolic compounds in the seed
(Saavedra et al., 2017).
Permal, Leong Chang, Seale, Hamid, and Kam (2020),
investigated the amount of byproducts generated as a result
of cold-pressed avocado oil production, and the suitability
of spray dried avocado wastewater as a natural food preser-
vative. In these discards, 29.7% of digestible carbohydrates
were present in the seed. The wastewater, on the other hand,
contained a lipid content of 6.3%, whose antioxidant activ-
ity increased after spray drying. The authors further incor-
porated such spray-dried powder into cooked pork sausages
and it was found to be as effective as using a synthetic
antioxidant to inhibit lipid oxidation. In the study of Dávila,
Rosenberg, Castro, and Cardona (2017), the economic and
environmental aspects of the biorefining process of avocado
byproducts were also evaluated, besides the extraction of valu-
able compounds. The results indicated that the main fatty acid
in the pulp of avocado was oleic acid (50.96%) and that this
fruit contained significant amounts of holocellulose (52.88%
and 54.36% in the peel and seed, respectively). For the eco-
nomic assessment, it was stated that not only antioxidants
can be obtained from the biomass, but also xylitol, oil, and
ethanol, which are highly commercial compounds. The envi-
ronmental impact was mitigated because of the mass integra-
tion and the recovery of compounds at highest possible level,
which allowed a higher performance of the process.
Several health-related activities have been suggested for
avocado extracts. According to Athaydes et al. (2019), the
presence of phenolics in the extracts of seeds is related to
the mitigation of oxidative stress through a decrease of the
levels of oxidized products and increasing superoxide dis-
mutase enzyme activity, also preventing the rise in ulcer
and indomethacin-induced gastric lesions and histological
changes induced by indomethacin. Similarly, the presence
of oleic acid and sterol compounds in chloroform/methanol
extract of seeds was responsible for the anti-inflammatory and
anticancer activities in a cell line for colon cancer (HCT116)
14
and for liver cancer (HePG2) and this in a dose-dependent
manner. It also exhibited powerful scavenging of free radicals
by using the DPPH⋅ and ABTS methods (Alkhalf, Alansari,
Ibrahim, & Elhalwagy, 2018). In a similar study, Abubakar,
Achmadi, and Suparto (2017) reported that a triterpenoid iso-
lated from an ethanolic extract of avocado seed showed a sig-
nificant cytotoxic activity against all investigated cell lines
(Vero cell line (ATCC CCL-81), human breast cancer cell line
MCF-7 (ATCC HTB-22), and human liver cancer cell line
HepG2 (ATCC HB-8065)). The MTT assay showed that iso-
lated triterpenoids inhibited cell proliferation of the MCF-7
and HepG2 cell line.
Numerous studies have shown a positive health effect after
the inclusion of avocado byproducts on the diet of living
organisms, which could be mainly to the presence of bioac-
tive compounds. Thus, Uchenna, Shori, and Baba (2017a)
concluded that the inclusion of avocado seeds in the diet of
rats may partially influence the feeding and growth perfor-
mance. It lowered the cholesterol levels in blood, suppressed
high blood glucose, and improved liver glycogen storage capa-
bility of the rats. After de-oiling the seeds, edible protein was
prepared from the remnant. Nutritionally, the avocado protein
contains all the essential amino acids. Moreover, the protein
provided higher water and oil absorption capacities, higher
radical scavenging capacity but lower in vitro digestibility
compared with soy protein. Furthermore, the avocado pro-
tein as emulsifier gave a stable oil-in-water emulsion system,
resulting in a greater emulsifying stability than that of soy pro-
tein (Wang et al., 2019).
Research on avocado residues has shown that its byprod-
ucts have potential within the food and pharmaceutical indus-
tries, given their bioactivity related with a high amount of
phenolic compounds and nutritional value related with the
health-improving fatty acids and sensory characteristics. Fur-
thermore, it is very interesting that bioactive compounds iso-
lated from avocado have shown a positive effect against dif-
ferent cancer lines.
3.2.4 Banana (Musa spp.)
Banana is known as a carbohydrate-rich-source, with a con-
tent around 12%, as shown in Table 2. Therefore, several con-
ditions have been tested to isolate, among other compounds,
pectin and starch, which are easily isolated under acidic con-
ditions. Banana peels are the main byproduct of banana, rep-
resenting between 30% and 38% of the biomass (Table 2).
Compositional analysis (Table 3) revealed the presence of
flavonoids, tannins, phlobatannins, alkaloids, glycosides, and
terpenoids in ultrasonic extracts of banana peels, using ace-
tone as a solvent (Vu, Scarlett, & Vuong, 2018). Banana peel
aqueous extracts and banana peel ash have been reported to
exert antifungal activity against Aspergillus niger, but were
VALORIZATION OF TROPICAL FRUITS…
ineffective against Aspergillus flavus and Penicillium spp.
(Prakash, Sumangala, Melappa, & Gavimath, 2017).
Additionally, a procedure based only on acidic extraction
with ascorbic acid, was applied by Oliveira et al. (2017) target-
ing only pectin that is soluble at pH 3.5. The yield of galactur-
onic acid, which took into account the extraction yield and the
pectin purity, was improved at higher temperature and lower
pH values, with yields ranging between 5.2% and 12.2%. In
the same line, Swamy and Muthukumarappan (2017) obtained
a lower yield 2.18% to 2.58 % by applying microwave assisted
extraction and a pH of 3. In a similar study, Hernández-
Carmona, Morales-Matos, Lambis-Miranda, and Pasqualino
(2017) determined a starch extraction yield of 29% under
acidic conditions (5% w/v ascorbic acid solution) and with
5 min immersion time. Given the content of carbohydrates,
Yang et al. (2019) identified 𝛼-(1→6)-D-glucan in a hot-water
extract. This compound had an immunostimulatory activity
similar to 𝛽-(1→3)-D-glucan.
The sensory and nutritional assessment of baked prod-
ucts showed that wheat flour can be replaced up to 10%
by banana peel powder (Eshak, 2016). On the other hand,
for nonhuman foods, Rattanavichai and Cheng (2015) fed
prawns with banana peel extracts in different concentra-
tions, and found that this supplement promotes growth, anti-
hypothermal stress, and enhance immunity and resistance
against infections.
In general, banana peel was shown to be a promising source
of bioactive components for food and pharmaceutical indus-
tries. Furthermore, as remarkably shown by several authors,
the application of banana peels in bioremediation processes
can be a key part in the solution for the highly polluted
wastewater from mines, industries, and municipal landfills
(Oyewo, Onyango, & Wolkersdorfer, 2016), as can be seen
in the Appendix A.
3.2.5 Camu-camu (Myrciaria dubia)
Camu-camu is a rich source of ascorbic acid (0.96 to 2.99 g
per 100 g), which is approximately 60 times higher than
that of orange juice. This is attributed to the presence of
five metabolic pathways for ascorbic acid biosynthesis (Cas-
tro, Maddox, & Imán, 2018; Castro et al., 2015). The main
byproduct of camu-camu is the peel, representing around
40% of the fruit, while the seeds are a minimum part of the
fruit, eaten together with the fruit but also being part of the
byproducts when its industrially processed, as summarized in
Table 2.
In general, flavonoids, ellagic, and syringic acid were
identified and quantified in extracts obtained with different
solvents in different steps to extract bioactive compounds
from hot-air-dried and fresh residue of camu-camu, consist-
ing mainly of seeds and peels (Table 3). The presence of
these components was related with a powerful antimicrobial
VALORIZATION OF TROPICAL FRUITS…
activity but moderate in vitro 𝛼-amylase and potent 𝛼-
glucosidase inhibitory activities. On the other hand, the dry-
ing process affected the concentration of most of the bioactive
compounds due to temperature, presence of oxygen, and direct
condensation of ascorbic acid on carbon 4 of anthocyanins
(de Azevêdo, Fujita, de Oliveira, Genovese, & Correia, 2014).
3.2.6 Citrus fruits
Citrus fruits are among the largest fruit crops in the world,
and the citrus industry is the second largest fruit processing
industry. Around 30% of citrus fruits are processed to obtain
various products, mainly juice (Izquierdo & Sendra, 2003).
According to Ding (2017), several fruits are grown in the three
zones of the tropics, and citrus are among the world’s most
exported ones.
Many studies have revealed the importance of research on
citrus fruit byproducts, since they have potential for useful
applications. Phytochemical analysis has revealed the pres-
ence of limonoids in the majority of citrus seeds and peels,
which represent 10% and 60% of the biomass, respectively
(Table 2) (Zou, Xi, Hu, Nie, & Zhou, 2016).
The proportion of beneficial bacteria and their metabo-
lites were increased in the intestinal flora of Sandhoff disease
mice after feeding them with limonoid aglycones extracted
from Citrus junos seeds. As a result, an extension in the
longevity of the mice by 10% was found (Minamisawa,
Suzuki, Kawai, Yamaguchi, & Yamanaka, 2017). Similarly,
Ajikumaran, Rajani Kurup, Akhila, and Sabulal (2018) con-
cluded that hydrodistilled essential oils have bioactive and in
vivo and in vitro anticancer activity, although the extracted
yield was lower compared to oils extracted with organic sol-
vents. In another study, Sah, Joshi, Juyal, and Kumar (2011)
demonstrated a possible regeneration of 𝛽-cells of the pan-
creas and stimulation of insulin secretion in induced diabetic
rats thanks to the petroleum ether extract of C. medica Linn.
On the other hand, citrus fruit peels are widely known
as source of pectins, which are traditionally extracted for
their technological properties (Verkempinck et al., 2018). Fur-
thermore, it has been demonstrated that pectins exhibited
immunomodulatory effects on the levels of cytokine secre-
tion in the spleen of mice with a pro-inflammatory potential
(Merheb, Abdel-Massih, & Karam, 2019). In this sense, dif-
ferent methods have been assayed and optimized for isolat-
ing pectins from citrus peels. A pH of 1.6, extraction time of
100 min with boiling aqueous HNO3 and liquid:solid ratio of
36 mL/g allowed an extraction yield of 25.6% with galactur-
onic acid purity of 84.5% (Colodel, Vriesmann, Teófilo, & de
Oliveira Petkowicz, 2018). In a similar study, Güzel and Akpı-
nar (2019) applied citric acid as acidifier and they obtained a
yield of 11.46%. Su et al. (2019) achieved an extraction yield
of 28% by using HCl, which could be significantly increased
by 17% with the application of non-ionic surfactants
15
Enzymatic hydrolysis of pectins is often applied to obtain
oligosaccharides with potential prebiotic properties (Babbar,
Dejonghe, Gatti, Sforza, & Elst, 2016). Thus, oligosacharides
were obtained after enzymatic hydrolysis of pectins, which
acted as a prebiotic compound for the growth, fermentation,
acid tolerance, and survival of Bifidobacterium bifidum and
Lactobacillus acidophilus (Ho, Lin, & Wu, 2017). Similarly,
the viscosity of citrus pectins was reduced, and a better
dissolution in water and less strong gels were evidenced
after chemically modifying such pectins with alkali and
acid hydrolysis (Fracasso, Perussello, Carpiné, Petkowicz, &
Haminiuk, 2018).
3.2.7 Dragon fruit (Hyelocereus spp)
Dragon fruit has been reported as a source of 𝛽-carotene,
lycopene, and vitamin E, with average concentrations of 1.4,
3.4, and 0.26 g per 100 g edible portion, respectively (Table 2).
Nevertheless, around half of the fruit is discarded after indus-
trial processing (1.5% as seeds and up to 38% correspond-
ing to the peels) (Le Bellec & Vaillant, 2011; Mercado-
Silva, 2018). In these fractions, tannins and saponin have
been identified in red dragon fruit peel extract (Matra, Wana-
pat, Cherdthong, Foiklang, & Mapato, 2019). The seeds con-
tain oils that are rich in fatty acids, such as linoleic acid and
linolenic acid.
Studies have shown that dragon fruit byproducts have a
high concentration of different bioactive compounds. Priatni
and Pradita (2015) found that acidified methanol allowed a
higher extraction of betacyanins from peels (515 μg per 100 g
FW), compared with the extraction yield of acidified water
(491 μg per 100 g FW). Moreover, the stability of the extracted
betacyanin was higher in the organic extract after five hours
storage at room temperature. In a similar study, Leong et al.
(2019) compared the color, yield and antioxidant activity of
betacyanins extracted from peels and flesh via liquid biphasic
electric flotation and liquid biphasic flotation. The first system
showed an optimal extraction of betacyanins from the peel and
flesh, giving extracts with different red colors. However, the
antioxidant activity was similar in both extraction methods.
Som, Ahmat, Abdul Hamid, and Azizuddin (2019) assessed
not only the byproducts of dragon fruit, but also biomass
that is produced along with them. Thus, they compared the
foliage and peels of dragon fruit in terms of phenolic content
and antioxidant activity by using methanol and chloroform as
extraction media. Results revealed that the peels have higher
phenolic content (18.18 to 48.15 mg GAE per 100 g DW) than
foliage (5.92 to 30.3 mg GAE per 100 g DW), which influ-
enced the antioxidant activity.
Most of the literature reports deal with extraction of pectin
from dragon fruit peel, often facilitated with microwaves.
Microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) under acidic condi-
tions (pH 2.07) at 800 W allowed an extraction yield of 18.5%.
16
Under these conditions, the galacturonic acid content was
65%, with a degree of esterification of 45.82% to 46.95 %
and a crystallinity of 15.32% to 21.22 % (Rahmati, Abdul-
lah, & Kang, 2019). In a similar study, 600 W and a heating
time of 10 min allowed an extraction yield of 23.11%. How-
ever, a drop in viscosity was found during the MAE extrac-
tion, which could be due to the degradation of pectin. Over-
all, the degree of esterification of the obtained pectin was
between 57% and 60% and its anhydrouronic acid content was
between 60% and 72% (Tongkham, Juntasalay, Lasunon, &
Sengkhamparn, 2017). Thirugnanasambandham, Sivakumar,
and Prakash Maran (2014) obtained a lower extraction yield
(7.5%) at 400 W, temperature of 45 ◦ C, extraction time of
20 min, and solid–liquid ratio of 24 g/mL. Nguyen and Pirak
(2019) compared conventional techniques with ultrasound
assisted extraction for extracting pectin from dragon fruit
peels. They saw that the application of ultrasound allowed
an extraction of 9.38%, which is significantly higher than
the yield obtained with conventional techniques, but lower
than the results of the studies discussed above. The antiox-
idant activity was also higher in the extracts obtained with
ultrasound than the extracts obtained with conventional tech-
niques. Moreover, the chemical properties of the pectin like
weight, degree of esterification, methoxyl content, and total
anhydroronic acid revealed that the extracted pectin could be
categorized as low-methoxyl pectin.
Overall, dragon fruit appears as an interesting source
of bioactive substances, mainly phenolic compounds, with
potential useful applications in pharmaceutical and food
industries. Thus, dragon fruit byproducts have potential for
use as a source of functional ingredients to provide nutri-
ents that may prevent nutrition-related diseases and improve
physical and mental well-being of consumers (Wichienchot,
Jatupornpipat, & Rastall, 2010). Moreover, the peel has poten-
tial for commercializing as a new source of pectin indirectly
used to increase the economic value of byproducts coming
from the food and feed industry.
3.2.8 Durian (Durio zibethinus)
The main characteristic of Durian is the high concentration
of phenolic compounds such as caffeic acid, p-coumaric and
vanillic acids, hesperidin, quercetin, myricitin, apigenin, and
kaempherol (Ansari, 2016). These levels are mainly found
in the peel, which is a byproduct representing between 50%
and 60% of the fruit, as shown in Table 2. The presence of
flavonoids, quercetin, flavanols, tannins, anthocyanins, and
ascorbic acid (Table 3), significantly reduced the damage in
the aorta and liver when organic solvent extracts of pulp were
administered to hypercholesterolemic rats (Leontowicz et al.,
2011).
Studies suggested that the presence of flavonoids on durian
peels regenerates and stimulates the release of insulin by
VALORIZATION OF TROPICAL FRUITS…
the 𝛽 cells of the pancreas (Muhtadi, Primarianti, & Sujono,
2015). Limited information is available on the use of durian
byproducts in the food industry. In one of the few studies,
water-soluble polysaccharides from durian seeds were incor-
porated in pineapple juice (Herlina, Lindriati, Praptiningsih,
and Suciani (2016). The outcomes suggested that the incor-
poration of 0.10% of extract improved the viscosity, stability,
texture, and appearance given the concentration of carbohy-
drates and protein, which in the form of colloids acted as sta-
bilizers.
3.2.9 Guava (Psidium guajava)
Guava byproducts are composed of peel (20% of the fruit)
and seeds (30% of the fruit), as summarized in Table 2. Both
fractions have potential to be used as a functional ingredient
to prevent oxidative stress and other related diseases due to
their content of phenolic compounds (Table 2) and insoluble
dietary fiber (74%) and high amount of phytosterols, saponins
lycopene and fatty acids.
The presence of phenolic compounds (see Table 3) was
related to 𝛼-amylase inhibition, and antioxidant and antirad-
ical activities, along with a body weight reduction of 8% in
obese rats (Amaya-Cruz et al., 2015; Rojas-Garbanzo, Zim-
mermann, Schulze-Kaysers, & Schieber, 2017). In the same
line, the highest extraction yield of phenolic compounds was
achieved with a solution of 60% methanol or pure water and
a further purification via ultrafiltration membranes (Sukeksi,
Che Hassan, Nik Sulaiman, Rashidi, & Davazdah Emami,
2016). Similarly, Uchoa-Thomaz et al. (2014) performed a
screening study on the chemical composition of guava seeds,
which had high levels of dietary fiber, protein, iron, zinc, and
reduced caloric content. The lipid profile showed a predomi-
nance of unsaturated fatty acids, especially linoleic and oleic
acids. Overall, significant amounts of bioactive compounds
such as ascorbic acid, carotenoids, and insoluble dietary fiber
were found.
In another field, L. Silva, Hill, Figueiredo, and Gomes
(2014) saw that encapsulated hydro-alcoholic guava extracts
of peel, unused pulp, and seeds inhibited L. monocytogenes
and E. coli at lower concentration than the corresponding non-
encapsulated fruit byproduct. Such hydro-alcoholic extracts
did not alter body weight over time when supplemented to
mice, although it reduced glycemia and insulin resistance in
obese mice, in view of the high concentrations of phenolic
compounds (Díaz-de-Cerio et al., 2017).
Guava appears as an interesting source of bioactive sub-
stances, mainly phenolic compounds, with potential useful
applications in pharmaceutical and food industries. Next to
phenolics, the predominance of unsaturated fatty acids and
dietary fiber make guava byproducts a target when looking for
new sources of beneficial compounds for human nutrition.
VALORIZATION OF TROPICAL FRUITS…
3.2.10 Mango (Mangifera indica)
Among the different tropical fruits, mango is one of the most
studied. According to Irondi, Oboh, Akindahunsi, Boligon,
and Athayde (2014), mango contains essential and functional
nutrients (Table 2) that can be used in various products. Over-
all, processing of mango generates a high outflow of byprod-
ucts, mainly peels and seeds, which account around the 7% to
24% and 45% to 85 %, respectively, of the whole fruit. These
byproducts have been characterized by a high concentration of
valuable compounds that can develop interesting nutritional
features, as shown un Table 3, given the presence of dietary
fiber, crude protein, carotenoids, and total soluble phenol con-
tent (Sánchez-Camargo et al., 2019).
Studies have been performed in order to isolate pheno-
lics from mango byproducts, mainly peels. Thus, Agatonovic-
Kustrin, Kustrin, and Morton (2018) identified a higher con-
centration of phenolic compounds in peel (463 to 2692 mg
GAE per 100 g) than in pulp (275 to 1267 mg GAE per
100 g) after performing an ethanolic extraction. Moreover,
chlorogenic, gallic, and caffeic acids were identified as the
main compounds via high performance thin layer chromatog-
raphy. Other compounds such as ellagic and gallic acids,
rutin, and catechin were identified and quantified by da
Silva Sauthier et al. (2019), after using acidified methanol
as extraction medium. In line with other studies, the antioxi-
dant activity of peel extracts was higher than in the pulp. Par-
niakov, Barba, Grimi, Lebovka, and Vorobiev (2016) found
that the extraction of phenolics from mango peel is signif-
icantly enhanced (+400%) with the application of pulsed
electric field followed by a supplementary aqueous extrac-
tion. The stability of the extracted compounds was evaluated
by Velderrain-Rodríguez, Acevedo-Fani, González-Aguilar,
and Martín-Belloso (2019) after encapsulating a phenolic-
rich extract from mango peel in water-in-oil-in-water emul-
sions. The encapsulated compounds and the emulsion showed
a high stability after 21 days of storage at 4 ◦ C. Next to pheno-
lics, carotenoids have also received attention, given their ben-
efits. In extracts of peels in different maturity stages obtained
with acetone, a concentration between 73.5 and 81 μg/g DW
and 194 and 436 μg/g DW in raw and ripened mango peel,
respectively, was quantified, next to anthocyanins and phe-
nolics. High antioxidant activity and inhibition of lipoxyge-
nase activity was observed (Ajila, Naidu, Bhat, & Rao, 2007).
The bioaccesibility of carotenoids extracted from peel and
de-juiced pulp with ultrasound assisted extraction was eval-
uated by Mercado-Mercado, Montalvo-González, González-
Aguilar, Alvarez-Parrilla, and Sáyago-Ayerdi (2018), in an in
vitro model. The bioaccessibility in the ultrasound assisted
extraction-peel was improved by 46.93%, 35.21%, and 32.62%
for 𝛽-cryptoxanthin, lutein, and 𝛽-carotene, respectively.
While in the ultrasound assisted extraction-pulp, the treatment
improved the bioaccessibility (%) for lutein, 𝛽-cryptoxanthin,
17
and 𝛽-carotene by 46.04%, 44.16%, and 44.01% respectively.
The increase in bioaccessability of the carotenoids by the
ultrasound treatment is attributed to the changes induced to
the cell wall. It is suggested that the energy applied allows to
break the glycosidic link to dietary fiber.
Other than bioactives, pectin has also been a target in the
valorization of mango peels. In a sequential extraction per-
formed by Guandalini, Rodrigues, and Marczak (2019), a
yield of 67% of phenolics present in the mango peel could
be extracted in first instance with a mixture of EtOH:water
(50:50; v:v) and the remnant was used to obtain pectins
with ultrasound assisted extraction. This process increased the
pectin extraction yield with more than 50% compared with the
reference extraction performed without ultrasound and did not
affect its quality, measured by the galacturonic acid content
and the degree of esterification. In a similar study, Mugwagwa
and Chimphango (2019) applied a sequential fractionation of
mango peels for pectin and anthocyanins. Anthocyanins were
extracted with acidified ethanol and the remaining residue
resulted in pectin with a 5.5% higher antioxidant activity, 23%
richer in polygalacturonic acid, and with a yield that was 31%
(w:w) higher than conventionally extracted samples. Given
the nutritional value of mango peels, Chen et al. (2019) eval-
uated the effects of mango peel powder on starch digestion
properties and quality characteristics of bread. The authors
saw that the incorporation of less than 5% of mango peel did
not alter the bread quality, although starch digestibility was
significantly inhibited.
On the other hand, mango seed has attracted scientific
attention because of the presence of bioactive compounds
with high antioxidant activity, lipids that have acceptable
physical and chemical characteristics and high protein con-
tent (Torres-León et al., 2016). For the oils present in the
seed, pressurized liquid extraction is the most frequently
applied method for extraction. Akanda et al. (2015) opti-
mized the extraction conditions of mango seed kernel via
supercritical fluid extraction (SFE), yielding cocoa butter
analogy fats and compared the yield with Soxhlet extrac-
tion. The authors found that the oil triglycerides were rich
in stearic and oleic fatty acids and their concentration was
found to be similar in the oil extracted via the application
of both methods. Similarly, Ballesteros-Vivas et al. (2019)
found that palmitic acid, oleic acid, and stearic acid are the
most abundant compounds in mango seed oil extracted via
pressurized liquid with n-heptane as main solvent, with an
extraction yield of 13.82%. On the other hand, mango seed
has also been studied as a source of antioxidant compounds.
Similarly, Ballesteros-Vivas et al. (2019) found an extraction
yield of 143.79 mg GAE per g DW and 1.21 mg quercetin
equivalent (QE) per g DW, for phenolics and flavonoids,
respectively, in extracts performed with ethanol as main sol-
vent under 150 ◦ C in a pressurized liquid extraction process.
18
Torres-León et al. (2019) found an increase from 984 to
3288 mg GAE per 100 g DW after a solid-state fermenta-
tion with the fungus Aspergillus niger, followed by an ethano-
lic extraction. The same authors evaluated the effect of dif-
ferent conditions of solid to liquid ratio, temperature, and
extraction cycle for microwave-assisted extraction of antioxi-
dant compounds from mango seeds. The optimized conditions
were found to be 1/60 g/mL, 75 ◦ C, and two cycles. Under
these conditions, the antioxidant activity is 1738.2 mg Trolox
per g (Torres-León, Rojas, Serna-Cock, Belmares-Cerda, &
Aguilar, 2017).
The results of different studies have shown that mango
byproducts are a potential source of nutritional food ingredi-
ents in view of the specific physical and chemical characteris-
tics of the seed oil, which are similar to those of the cocoa fat,
while the peel was characterized by a high content of bioac-
tive compounds, which confer the potential to be incorporated
as a food ingredient or in the pharmaceutical industry. The
importance of mango as source of valuable compounds can
be deduce from the growing scientific evidence dealing with
the extraction and evaluation of bioactive compounds.
3.2.11 Papaya (Carica papaya)
In papaya, important levels of phenolics are found, mainly in
peels (which represent 20% of the fruit, see Table 2). On the
other hand, papaya seeds, which account 20% of the fruit, as
summarized in Table 2, has been characterized as an impor-
tant source of bioactive compounds and valuable compounds
including proteins and oil.
Methanol and ethanol were described as the best solvents
to obtain maximum extraction yields of phenolic compounds
from different parts of papaya, including peels and seeds
(Table 3). These extracts were further studied for their antioxi-
dant and antibacterial activity against several multidrug resis-
tant Gram positive and negative bacteria (Asghar et al., 2016).
In addition, aqueous extracts of defatted papaya seed had an
antioxidant activity and also an antimicrobial activity against
Gram positive and negative bacteria (Sofi, Raju, Lakshmisha,
& Singh, 2016). In general, a further purification step of aque-
ous seed extracts with silica gel column chromatography had
an effect on the in vitro cytoprotective, antioxidative, and
anti-inflammatory mechanisms, as well as on genoprotection
in response to induced carcinogenicity (Pathak et al., 2014).
Such phenolic composition may be responsible for the reduc-
tion in glycemic index after the addition of papaya peel pow-
der in bread formulations (Waghmare & Arya, 2014). Other
compounds have also been analyzed in papaya byproducts.
Hence, Castro-Vargas, Baumann, and Parada-Alfonso (2016)
used methanol to prepare extracts from seeds that underwent a
purification process with solid-phase extraction targeting the
isolation of benzylglucosinolate, which decreased the lipid
oxidation in edible vegetable oil by over 80%.
VALORIZATION OF TROPICAL FRUITS…
In another area, Parniakov, Barba, Grimi, Lebovka, and
Vorobiev (2014) showed that proteins from papaya seeds were
better extracted after pretreatment with high voltage elec-
trical discharges compared to pulsed electric field assisted
extraction. However, electrical discharges may produce free
reactive radicals, which can reduce the nutritional qual-
ity of high-added value compounds. On the other hand,
Zhang et al. (2017) recovered higher concentrations of sol-
uble dietary fiber from papaya peel by alkaline compared to
ultrasound-assisted extraction. Also ethanol extraction along
with microwave-assisted dehydration was used to produce
dietary fiber concentrates from papaya byproducts (Nieto
Calvache, Soria, De Escalada Pla, & Gerschenson, 2017). Fur-
thermore, studies have shown that latex extracted from papaya
peel is a rich source of proteolytic enzymes (Meza-Jiménez,
Pokhrel, Robles de la Torre, Barbosa-Canovas, & Hernández-
Sánchez, 2019; Nitsawang, Hatti-Kaul, & Kanasawud, 2006),
with interesting biological applications, for example, antimi-
crobial activities (dos Anjos et al., 2016).
Papaya excels as a potential source of antioxidant com-
pounds, with interesting antimicrobial properties against dif-
ferent kinds of bacteria. However, the most remarkable char-
acteristic of papaya is the possibility to act as anti-carcinogen
agent in view of its phenolic composition.
3.2.12 Passion fruit (Passiflora edulis)
Passion fruit peel (90% of the biomass, see Table 2) has been
characterized for its high concentration of soluble dietary
fiber, phytochemical composition, and physical properties of
the peels, which makes it suitable for application in the food
industry. On the other hand, the seeds represent 8% of the
fruit, and they have been characterized for their concentra-
tion of volatile compounds, like esters, alcohols, and terpenes
(Leão, Sampaio, Pagani, & Da Silva, 2014).
With respect to the antioxidant compounds, Cazarin et al.
(2016) demonstrated that passion fruit peel intake exerted an
intestinal anti-inflammatory effect and attenuated an induced
colonic damage, in addition to an increase in short-chain fatty
acid formation in the colon. Similar results were found by Chi-
lakapati, Serasanambati, Manikonda, Chilakapati, and Wat-
son (2014) in a mouse model of bleomycin induced pul-
monary fibrosis. On the other hand, the application of the
peel resulted in an improvement in the nutritional value of
foods. Hence, authors like Conti-Silva and Roncari (2015) and
López-Vargas, Fernández-López, Pérez-Álvarez, and Viuda-
Martos (2014) found an increase in the concentration of
fiber content and nutritional value in bread and pork burg-
ers, respectively, after the inclusion of passion fruit peel flour
in the formulation. Other authors also showed that pectin
from passion fruit could be isolated under different condi-
tions. Hydrochloric acid (HCl), for instance, allowed a total
pectin extraction yield of around 15% (de Moura et al., 2017).
VALORIZATION OF TROPICAL FRUITS…
Similarly, de Oliveira, Giordani, Gurak, Cladera-Olivera, and
Marczak (2015) found that a pH of 1 allowed an extraction
yield of 10%. The authors also evaluated the influence of an
electric field, which did not improve the yield. Nevertheless,
Seixas et al. (2014) found the best yield (between 15% and
30%) when tartaric acid was used along with pretreatment
with electric field pulses. These results suggest that passion
fruit peel could be used as a source of pectin for application
as thickening and emulsifying agent. Similarly, Espírito-Santo
et al. (2013) evaluated the influence of the addition of passion
fruit fiber isolated from peels on whey formation, rheological
parameters, microstructure, and sensorial characteristics of
probiotic yoghurts, but the results indicated that such addition
did not exert a significant influence on the yoghurts. In a sim-
ilar study, two starter cultures and five probiotic strains were
used to ferment soymilk aiming to increase folate concentra-
tions in the presence of fructo-oligosaccharides and passion
fruit byproducts (Albuquerque, Bedani, LeBlanc, and Saad
(2017). A comparable stimulation of folate production was
found by the selected bacterial strains.
Studies have been done to include passion fruit byprod-
ucts in animal feed. One kilogram of passion fruit seed
oil supplements, with an apparent metabolizable energy of
≈3.945 kcal/g, was given to broiler chickens. Byproducts of
passion fruit seed could be used at levels of up to 5% inclusion
in broiler diets without impairing on performance, carcass
yield, blood parameters, intestinal morphometry, and meat
quality (Zanetti et al., 2018). However, when passion fruit
seed was used in the diet of laying hens, there was no dif-
ference in egg production and feed conversion, but the spe-
cific gravity of eggs increased with the concentration of seeds,
while total cholesterol and blood triglycerides decreased lin-
early, and also a decrease in the yolk lipid oxidation was evi-
denced (Zanetti et al., 2016). The addition of passion fruit
byproducts in elephants silage (Bonfá et al., 2015; Cardoso
de Azevedo et al., 2017) increased the dry matter and favored
the fermentative, microbiological, and bromatological silage
processes, while in pig feeding, seed meal showed to increase
the serum levels of cholesterol (Perondi et al., 2014). Simi-
larly, the mixture between grass and passion fruit peel could
be an efficient and environmental acceptable way to preserve
feeds in order to sustain the productivity of the herds during
the dry season (Espinoza et al., 2017). Alves et al. (2015) con-
cluded that feeding cattle with passion fruit peel resulted in
a higher feed intake and higher weight gain. Also, the coef-
ficients of digestibility of dry matter, organic matter, crude
protein, and the digestibility coefficient of neutral detergent
fiber from passion fruit byproducts were higher than those
observed with the sorghum silage. The substitution of Tifton
85 (Cynodon spp.) hay by dehydrated passion fruit peel was
evaluated on intake, digestibility, nitrogen balance, and car-
cass traits in rams. The authors concluded that substitution at
approximately 30% can be a good option for producers will-
19
ing to reduce feeding costs, without impairing performance
and carcass traits (Sena et al., 2015).
Despite all the nutritional characteristics of passion fruit
byproducts that are potentially applicable in humans, the
main utilization potential is indicated for animal nutrition, in
view of the benefits in animal growing and characteristics
of the products of animal origin. Moreover, the use of these
byproducts represents an effective and ecological suitable way
to preserve feeds in order to maintain the productivity of
animals.
3.2.13 Pineapple (Ananas comosus)
Pineapple is known for its high concentration of carbohy-
drates, fiber and bioactive compounds. The peels, which rep-
resent 50% of the biomass, are characterized by a high concen-
tration of the same compounds as mentioned above (Table 2).
Therefore, these peels have potential for fiber enrichment of
nutritionally poor products (Selani et al., 2014), but could
also be an inexpensive and sustainable alternative resource
for the production of bacterial cellulose (Algar et al., 2015),
enzymes, and bioactive compounds (Rashad, Abdou, & Mah-
moud, 2016), and for bioremediation (Rahmat et al., 2016)
(Appendix A).
Ethanolic extracts of pineapple peel metabolites, summa-
rized in Table 3, showed a better inhibitory effect in the
growth of pathogenic bacteria when compared with methano-
lic extraction (Gunwantrao, Bhausaheb, Ramrao, & Subhash,
2016). At the same time, the concentration of such metabolites
within the fruit byproducts were enhanced after ultraviolet-
C radiation (Freitas et al., 2015). Given the concentration
of these compounds, Segovia Gómez and Almajano Pablos
(2016) showed that the addition of aqueous pineapple peel
extracts improved the antioxidant activity of muffins as well
as the prevention of lipid oxidation. However, dos Anjos
et al. (2016) demonstrated that the antibacterial activity of
bromelain against Alicyclobacillus spp. was not due to the
proteolytic activity of the enzyme itself, but rather to other
enzymatic actions, such as amidase and esterase activities.
Furthermore, owing to the high concentration of carbohy-
drates, the functional properties like swelling capacity and
water absorption and retention capacity of flours obtained
from pineapple peel were significantly higher in comparison
with other fruit byproducts flours (Lopera-Cardona, Gallardo,
Umaña-Gallego, & Gil, 2016).
In a different line of research, Roda et al. (2017) elabo-
rated wines with pineapple peel and core by combining phys-
ical and enzymatic treatments of byproducts and alcoholic
fermentation under different conditions of temperature and
yeast strains. This allowed to produce different aroma profiles,
alcohol concentrations, and organic acids. In a similar study,
Roda et al. (2017) determined high concentrations of alco-
hols, aldehydes, and ketones in the aromatic profile of vinegar
20
enriched with pineapple byproducts, while off-flavors were
significantly low. Similarly, pineapple peel allowed the pro-
duction of lactic acid after optimization of temperature, pH,
nitrogen sources, mineral salts, inoculum concentration, and
fermentation time (Maheshwaran & Palaniswamy, 2017).
The addition of pineapple byproducts significantly
enhanced the nutritional properties as well as the taste of
food products. Cookies enriched with wheat flour partially
substituted by pineapple flour byproducts gave high fiber
levels, a consumers’ acceptance of 97%, and a buying
intention of 53% (Toledo, Nunes, Silva, Spoto, & Canniatti-
Brazaca, 2017). Similar results were observed in cereal
bars supplemented with pineapple peel flour (Aparecida
Damasceno et al., 2016). The taste of sausages was improved
with the addition of pineapple fiber (Díaz-Vela, Totosaus,
Escalona-Buendía, & Pérez-Chabela, 2017). Also, Selani
et al. (2016) replaced fat with pineapple byproduct and canola
oil in low-fat beef burgers that showed a mean reduction in
cholesterol content of 9.15%. Canola oil addition improved
the fatty acid profile of the burgers, and their oxidative sta-
bility was affected by the vegetable oil addition. An increase
of probiotic populations using pineapple byproducts with
Lactobacillus acidophilus, L. casei, and L. paracasei was
observed in yogurts after pineapple powder supplementation.
Furthermore, peptide extracts of these yoghurts displayed
remarkable antioxidant and antimutagenic activities (Sah,
Vasiljevic, McKechnie, & Donkor, 2016a). In a similar work,
Sah, Vasiljevic, McKechnie, and Donkor (2016b) concluded
that supplementation with fiber reduced the fermentation
time of milk co-fermented with probiotic bacteria and showed
significant differences in syneresis levels. However, firmness
and storage modulus were lowered significantly upon fiber
addition. In sensory analysis, pineapple yogurt supplemented
with pineapple peel flour approached a “like moderately”
qualification (Neres, de Souza, & Bezerra, 2015).
Sheep fed with pineapple peel-added silage during 90
days showed an increase in body weight, which suggested
that pineapple peels might be an economically feasible agro-
industrial byproduct for farmers (Maneerat, Prasanpanich,
Tumwasorn, Laudadio, & Tufarelli, 2015).
Overall, pineapples are a valuable source of carbohydrates,
mainly fibers, well known for their bioactive properties. Fur-
thermore, the presence of bromelain in the different frac-
tions, mark the various applications of pineapple, mainly in
the pharmaceutical and food industries.
3.2.14 Pitaya (Stenocereus spp)
Pitaya is an important fruit grown in the semiarid lands of
tropical and subtropical regions. It is rich in micronutrients
and phenolic compounds, which confer great health bene-
fits to improve digestion, lower cholesterol, and strengthen
VALORIZATION OF TROPICAL FRUITS…
the immune system (Wu et al., 2020). The peel, which rep-
resent around 29% of the biomass, is characterized mainly for
the presence of betacyanins and other bioactive compounds,
while the seeds (1.4% of the biomass) are rich in oils.
Betacyanins and phenolics were extracted from peels via
microwave-assisted extraction. In this extract, 18 cinnamoyl
derivatives, 17 flavonoid derivatives, and four betacyanins
were identified (Ferreres et al., 2017). In a similar study, beta-
cyanin extracted by an alcohol/salt-based liquid biphasic par-
titioning system, showed a good stability under 4 ◦ C dark stor-
age (Leong et al., 2018).
In addition, the peels of pitaya have been used as a source
of amylases. Amid and Manap (2014) isolated and charac-
terized an amylase isolated from pitaya peel using ammo-
nium sulphate precipitation, gel filtration, and ion exchange
chromatography. The results showed that the enzyme was
monomeric with a molecular weight of 42.1 kDa and highly
active and stable over a wide pH range from pH 3 to 11.0, with
optimum activity being observed at pH 5.0. The enzyme was
highly selective for soluble starch, amylopectin, glycogen, and
pulullan. Similarly, Shad et al. (2018) purified 𝛼-amylase from
white pitaya peel in a system composed of salt and polyethy-
lene glycol. Furthermore, the impact of the working variables
was investigated. The partition coefficient, purification factor,
and amylase yield under the optimal conditions were 6.62%,
4.43%, and 89.12%, respectively.
The other fraction that can be used as a potential source
of valuable compounds are the seeds. In general, studies
have shown that pitaya oil contains high concentrations of
polyunsaturated fatty acids like linoleic acid (46% to 48%),
oleic acid (21.6% to 23.9%), and 𝛾-linolenic acid (1.21%),
while the saturated fatty acids were characterized by palmitic
acid (17.9% to 18.2%) and small concentrations of other
typical fatty acids like myristic and stearic acid, among
others (Ariffin et al., 2009; Villalobos-Gutierrez, Schweig-
gert, Carle, & Esquivel, 2012). Traditional extraction was
compared with microwave-assisted extraction, supercriti-
cal fluid extraction, aqueous enzymatic extraction, and a
combination of microwave and aqueous enzymatic extrac-
tion. Overall, the application of enzymes gave the best
results with the highest oil yield (7.78 wt%). The fatty
acid compositions of the oils were different depending
on the extraction conditions. In agreement with the other
studies, the most abundant unsaturated fatty acids and poly-
unsaturated fatty acids were oleic acid (11.80% to 23.40%)
and linoleic acid (25.22% to 54.43%) (Rui, Zhang, Li,
& Pan, 2009).
Given the presence of bioactive compounds with high
antioxidant activity, the characteristics of food products have
been improved. Thus, Cunha et al. (2018) investigated the
effect of microencapsulated microwave-assisted extracts of
VALORIZATION OF TROPICAL FRUITS…
pitaya peel on color, texture, and oxidative stability of pork
patties. They saw that the microencapsulated extracts together
with BHT delayed the protein oxidative processes, which was
evidenced in the minimized texture changes throughout the
storage.
In summary, pitaya byproducts could be potential candi-
dates to act as natural additives or active compounds in the
food and pharmaceutical industry, in view of the different
bioactive compounds, especially betacyanins and phenolics.
Furthermore, the nutritional characteristics of the oil extracted
from the seeds could be important for development of food
products with enhanced nutritional characteristics.
3.2.15 Pomegranate (Punica granatum)
From a functional point of view, pomegranate fruit is char-
acterized by a high antioxidant activity (Fu et al., 2011; Kim
et al., 2014), due to high levels of phenolic compounds (Abid
et al., 2017), as shown in Table 2. Nevertheless, the concen-
tration of the individual compounds is significantly affected
by the cultivar (Viyar et al., 2017).
As shown in Table 3, phenolics and carotenoids are the
main metabolites present in the byproducts of pomegranate.
Recently, Aguilar-Zárate et al. (2017) identified 20 phenolic
compounds by high-performance liquid chromatography–
electrospray ionization–mass spectrometry in pomegranate-
husk, which represents 50% of the biomass. The main
compounds were punicalagin, punicalin, and ellagic acid. Fur-
thermore, punicalagin was isolated by medium pressure liquid
chromatography, whose presence showed a strong scavenging
capacity for DPPH⋅ and ABTS radicals. Similar results were
presented by Sun et al. (2017), after the purification of ellag-
itannins and punicalagin from pomegranate husk, extracted
with the help of crystallization and reverse-phase liquid
chromatography. The presence of this valuable elements
makes them interesting sources for new pharmaceuticals. For
instance, the potential health benefits of pomegranate peels
and the underlying mechanism of its inhibition of cancer
progression were reviewed by Panth, Manandhar, and Paudel
(2017). The reported activities are attributed to the presence
of phenolic compounds within the fruit matrix, with demon-
strated anti-proliferative, anti-metastatic, and anti-invasive
effects on various cancer cell lines using in vitro models.
Pathak, Mandavgane, and Kulkarni (2017) reviewed the
biorefinery process of pomegranate peel, and delivered an
outline of its chemical composition. The authors also provided
an overview of the possible value-added products that can be
produced from its discarded agro-byproducts, like medicines,
bioactive compounds, and development of nanoparticles. The
addition of pomegranate peel improved the bioactive and
physical properties in noodles (Kazemi, Karim, Mirhosseini,
Hamid, & Tamnak, 2017), bread (Martins, Pinho, & Fer-
reira, 2017), and reduction the level of free radicals and
21
the pathogenic microbial population in lamb meat patties
(Andrés, Petrón, Adámez, López, & Timón, 2017). Taken
into account the concentration of phenolic compounds, Galaz
et al. (2017) found that the phenolic composition, content
of hydrolyzable tannins as well as antioxidant activity were
maintained after drum drying of pomegranate peel in combi-
nation with high temperatures and short processing times. In
the same sense, encapsulation of hydro-alcoholic extracts of
pomegranate peels with calcium alginate microspheres gave a
higher antioxidant capacity than commercial dietary fiber rich
products (Colantuono, Vitaglione, Ferracane, Campanella, &
Hamaker, 2017).
In other studies, pomegranate peel pectins had a low degree
of methylation and were characterized by the predominance of
homogalacturonan regions. Differences were found in pectin
gel formation between varieties. Furthermore, the gelling
properties of the pectins gave good characteristics in the pres-
ence of calcium (Abid et al., 2017). Moreover, pectins with
different acylation and methylation degree showed prebiotic
properties in vitro with strains of Lactobacillus and Bifi-
dobacterium (Khatib et al., 2017). The capacity of ethano-
lic pomegranate pomace extract for reducing L. monocyto-
genes in fresh leaves was higher than the reduction observed
with disinfection via chlorinated treatment. Furthermore, the
pomegranate pomace treatment did not affect the surface color
of the leaves (Kang & Song, 2017). In a similar way, Hous-
ton, Bugert, Denyer, and Heard (2017) demonstrated that the
pomegranate peel extract and zinc sulphate, zinc citrate, zinc
stearate, and zinc gluconate exerted a similar potential viruci-
dal activity against Herpes simplex virus. No cytotoxicity was
detected.
Replacing wheat flour with pomegranate dried peel
during formulation of noodles decreased the total lipid and
triglyceride amount in blood of rats, due to the presence
of mainly natural antioxidants and dietary fiber (Algarini,
2017). Also, the polyphenolic antioxidant rich extract of
pomegranate mesocarp decreased the oxidative stress and
inflammation at adipose tissue level with the propensity to
mitigate obesity-related disorders such as insulin resistance
and type II diabetes (Ramlagan et al., 2017). Durante et al.
(2017) quantified abundant tocochromanols in pomegranate
oleoresins, with a high antioxidant activity and a high
percentage of unsaturated fatty acids, mainly punicic acid.
Sprouting has shown to dramatically increase the concen-
tration of phenolic compounds, flavonoids, non-tannins,
and antioxidant activity in pomegranate seeds (Falcinelli
et al., 2017). Therefore, pomegranate seeds appeared to be a
suitable way of utilizing the byproducts of the juice industry
to obtain bioactive compounds. The combination of propolis
wax and bee wax allowed the production of pomegranate
seed oil organogels with important implications in the food
industry due to the presence of considerable amounts of
polyunsaturated fatty acids and phenolic compounds (Fayaz
22
et al., 2017). In other industrial applications, the concen-
tration of nitrogenous compounds, phosphorous, phenolic
components, and other metallic elements in the form of salts
or oxides contributed to fire retardancy when applied on
ligno-cellulosic material (Basak & Ali, 2017).
In summary, pomegranate byproducts are excellent candi-
dates to be used as natural additives or active compounds in
the food and pharmaceutical industries, in view of the high
antioxidant, antimicrobial, and antiviral activity. Moreover,
the presence of pectins plays a fundamental role in the devel-
opment of food products that need prebiotics.
3.2.16 Prickly pear (Opuntia spp.)
Processing of prickly pear results in the accumulation of sev-
eral quantities of byproducts, which represent around 30% of
the fruit weight (around 29% representing the peel and 1.5%
the seeds, as can be seen in Table 2). In these byproducts,
several valuable compounds have been found and quantified,
among which are bioactives and mainly pectines.
Although the seeds are a minor fraction, they received a lot
of attention due to the presence of fiber, phenolics, flavonoids,
PUFA’s (mainly linoleic acid), and tocopherols (specially 𝛾-
tocopherol), which contribute to a good antioxidant capac-
ity (Morales, Ramírez-Moreno, Sanchez-Mata, Carvalho, &
Ferreira, 2012). The fatty acid composition was reported by
Ghazi, Ramdani, Fauconnier, El Mahi, and Cheikh (2013) and
Bhatt and Nagar (2013). In terms of unsaturated fatty acids,
both studies agreed when stating that such compounds were
the highest concentrated, with values ranging from 58.79%
to 84.35%. Linoleic acid was found to be between 58.79%
and 79.82%, palmitic acid between 11.18% and 13.52%, and
stearic acid between 1.50% and 1.72% of the fatty acids. The
sterol fraction was composed of campesterol, stigmasterol,
and fucosterol. The sterol marker, 𝛽-sitosterol, accounted for
78% to 80% of the total sterol content in the oil. Finally,
vitamin E and 𝛾-tocopherol were present in low quantities,
1.23% and 0.29% of the total lipids, respectively. The oil anal-
ysis showed that the iodine value, acid value, saponification
value, and unsaponifiable matter were 110.95, 1.64, 191.85,
and 2.65, respectively. Chougui et al. (2013) characterized
the phenolic profile of the seeds and found more than 20
compounds detected after LC separation. High correlations
were found between phenolic content in the defatted seed
extracts and their antioxidant activity. González-Stuart and
Rivera (2019) summarized that seeds of prickly pear possess
potential health-improving activities, due to the content of oil
and the antioxidant activity, especially against lipid peroxida-
tion. The oil also showed various beneficial effects including
𝛼-glucosidase inhibitory activity, cytotoxicity against human
certain cancer cell lines, antimicrobial action, antifungal
activity as well as analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects.
VALORIZATION OF TROPICAL FRUITS…
Among the various bioactive phytochemicals, the isorham-
netin flavonoid glycosides seem to be the most abundant.
On the other hand, the review of Barba et al. (2017) con-
cluded that novel nonthermal technologies are efficient to
recover functional phytochemicals from prickly pear fruit
byproducts. The hydroethanolic extracts (EtOH:Water; 80:20;
v:v) of three different species where characterized by a high
concentration of phenolics and betalains, which was cor-
related with their antioxidant and antimicrobial activities.
In general, the antimicrobial activity of the hydroethanolic
extracts of all species revealed active higher activity compared
to ampicillin (Melgar et al., 2017). Morales, Barros, Ramírez-
Moreno, Santos-Buelga, and Ferreira (2014) obtained several
extractions with different solvents targeting compounds with
different polarities within the fruit matrix. The authors were
able to identify and quantify soluble sugars (mainly glucose,
fructose, and sucrose), organic acids (citric acid), phenolic
compounds (up to 18.45 mg/g extract DW) and fatty acids
(rich in palmitic acid).
Besides bioactive components, pectins have also been
extracted from prickly pear peel. Low methoxyl pectin was
extracted by sequential extraction with water in the presence
of ethylene diamine tetra-acetic acid followed by a precip-
itation with ethanol. The sugar composition of the pectin
was: galacturonic acid (654 mg/g DW), galactose (195 mg/g
DW), rhamnose (21.6 mg/g DW), arabinose (1.2 mg/g DW),
and glucose (1.2 mg/g DW). The molecular and physico-
chemical characterization revealed that the characteristics of
the pectin were suitable for application in different products
(Lira-Ortiz et al., 2014). Similarly, the application of cit-
ric acid/hydrochloric acid in de-starched an de-fatted prickly
pear peel allowed the extraction of 18% pectins, composed
of galacturonic acid (68.2% to 74%) with minor quantities of
galactose (10.2% to 12.4%), arabinose (4.4% to 5.4%), and
rhamnose (0.9% to 3.2%). All the samples were nonsticky
with good flow ability and exhibited good functional proper-
ties like emulsifying capacity and stability (Kalegowda, Singh
Chauhan, & Mysore NanjarajUrs, 2017).
Overall, and although the available information about
prickly pear is still limited, it is evident that this fruit is a
valuable source of oils, pectin, and bioactive phytochemi-
cals, like flavonoids and phenolic acids, which are primar-
ily responsible for the direct radical scavenging properties as
well as inhibition of ROS generation or action (Habtemariam,
2019). On the whole, these compounds confer prickly pear a
wide spectrum of potential applications for food and/or phar-
maceutical products.
3.2.17 Soursop (Annona muricata)
Soursop is a good source of antioxidants and all parts of
the fruit are used in traditional folk medicine (Akomolafe &
Ajayi, 2015; Siqueira, Moreira, Melo, Stamford, & Stamford,
VALORIZATION OF TROPICAL FRUITS…
2015; Yang et al., 2009). Phenolic compounds (Jiménez,
Gruschwitz, Schweiggert, Carle, & Esquivel, 2014; Silva
et al., 2014), vitamin C, carotenoids (Almeida et al., 2011;
Sousa, Vieira, da Silva, & de Lima, 2011), and annonaceous
acetogenins (Bermejo et al., 2005) have been associated
with antineoplastic, antiparasitic, cytotoxic, immunoressive,
neurotoxic, and pesticidal effects. All these compounds have
been identified as the major bioactive metabolites from
soursop, present mainly in the leaves and peels of the fruit
(Table 2) (Ma et al., 2018; Solís-Fuentes, Hernández-Medel,
& Durán-de-Bazúa, 2011). Besides bioactive compounds,
soursop bagasse is rich in sodium and cesium, while rather
low concentrations of chromium, scandium, bromine, and
calcium were detected (de Matuoka e Chiocchetti et al., 2013).
In peels, which are the main byproduct with an average
composition of 20% within the fruit matrix, Lee, Chang,
Khoo, Sia, and Yim (2016) tested different concentrations of
ethanol for producing extracts. The results showed moderate
levels of phenolic compounds. However, the extract demon-
strated high 𝛽-carotene bleaching inhibitory activity. In gen-
eral, the phenolic composition was positively and highly cor-
related with the antioxidant capacity of soursop peel.
According to da Silva and Jorge (2014), palmitic acid is
the higher concentrated fatty acid amongst the saturated fatty
acids in soursop seeds (5% to 8.5%, see Table 2), while
oleic acid is representative for the monounsaturated fatty
acid group. On the whole, soursop seed oil showed an anti-
hyperglycemic effect, decreased the toxic effects of hepatic
dysfunction in induced diabetes and showed immunomodu-
latory potential in vitro. The oil demonstrated an immuno-
modulatory effect and therapeutic potential for the treatment
and/or prevention of clinical diabetes I (Pinto et al., 2018).
Among all the analysis carried out in soursop fractions,
leaves are the most studied part, because of their bioactiv-
ity. Methanolic and aqueous extracts were highly rich in lute-
olin, homoorientin, tangeretin, quercetin, daidzein, epicate-
chin gallate, emodin, and coumaric acid, which was reflected
in a high antioxidant activity, while the methanolic extract
demonstrated protection against H2 O2 -induced DNA dam-
age when compared to the aqueous extract (George, Kumar,
Suresh, & Kumar, 2015). Similarly, the methanolic extract
inhibited the bacterial growth of S. aureus, S. typhimurium,
and E. faecalis and increased the number of dead cells, proba-
bly due to the presence of the alkaloids anonaine, asimilobine,
corypalmine, lirioderine, nornuciferine, xylopine, and reticu-
line (Pinto et al., 2017). Ethyl acetate extracts demonstrated
a significant wound healing activity, since the extract con-
tained high concentrations of antioxidants, which was related
to its anti-inflammatory effect (Moghadamtousi et al., 2015).
Ethyl acetate extracts of leaf endophytic fungi, identified as
Phomopsis sp., showed potential for anticancer activity when
tested against MCF-7 (Michigan Cancer Foundation-7) can-
cer cells at concentrations of 100 μg/mL, while no effect was
23
observed in the proliferation of normal cells (Minarni et al.,
2017).
Soursop shows interesting antibiotic, antioxidant, cyto-
toxic, and hypoglycemic activities due to the presence of ace-
togenins, which also have shown to be neurotoxic in in vitro as
well as in vivo studies (Spencer & Palmer, 2017). However, it
has been suggested that metabolic studies are also necessary
to determine whether digestive processes decrease or increase
bioactivity and/or neurotoxicity of the active compounds.
3.2.18 Tamarind (Tamarindus indica)
Tamarind is used for food and medicines, including aphro-
disiac activity (Rai et al., 2018), since its main appeal is
the high concentration of phenolic compounds and carbohy-
drates, with the seed being the main byproduct (around 30%
of the whole fruit), while kernel represents between 11% and
30% of the fruit, as displayed in Table 2.
Fruit pulp is the most commonly used tamarind product
(Ebifa-Othieno, Mugisha, Nyeko, & Kabasa, 2017), which
is known for its high antioxidant activity (Sandesh, Velu, &
Singh, 2014). In the seed (Table 3), between 21 and 36 mg gal-
lic acid equivalent (GAE) per 100 g of phenolic compounds
were found, which was directly related to the antioxidant
activity of methanolic extracts (Suksomtip, Ukrisdawithid,
Bhusawang, & Pongsamart, 2010). However, in a study car-
ried out by Paz et al. (2015), organochlorine pesticide residues
were identified in tamarind fractions.
Tamarind kernel was characterized as being rich in non-
fiber carbohydrates but low in fiber, which resulted in low in
vitro gas production. Moreover, crude protein digestion was
similar from those of soybean, which suggest that tamarind
kernel could be used as a protein source (Wang et al., 2017).
Next to such characterization, Wang et al. (2017) saw that
tamarind kernel did not bring any side effects after feeding
ruminants, although there was a lack of fiber. In a similar
study, Menezes et al. (2016) concluded that the inclusion of
tamarind residue in elephant grass silage provided more rapid
reduction in pH, reduction in gas production, and an increase
of the effective degradability.
Tamarind seeds are rich in carbohydrates, which gave
rise to the development of ingredients for food processing.
Tamarind starch is thermally stable and has a high crys-
tallinity index (Chandra Mohan et al., 2018). As such, Kaur,
Sandhu, and Kaur (2013) found that the pasting properties
of tamarind kernel varied significantly for rice and potato
flours as a function of their protein, ash, and fat content.
However, a lower viscosity response was found after addition
of gums. Other studies suggested that bacterial fermentation
of tamarind seed, which can be used as a food condiment,
decreased the phytic acid content, tannin content, and trypsin
inhibitor activity (Olagunju, Ezekiel, Ogunshe, Oyeyinka,
& Ijabadeniyi, 2018). Tamarind seed mucilage dispersions
24
presented a non-Newtonian shear thinning behavior, but tem-
perature, pH, and salts strongly affected their viscosity and
pseudoplasticity. As such, tamarind seed mucilage could be
applied in the production of foods that require additives with
thickening capacity (Alpizar-Reyes et al., 2018). The pres-
ence of carbohydrates also resulted in the production of emul-
sion films of sesame seed oil with sonication. The concen-
tration of oil hereby seemed to affect the psychochemical
properties of the oil droplets in the films (Rodrigues et al.,
2018).
Pharmaceutical applications also have been studied in
tamarind fractions due to the high content of bioactive com-
pounds. Anti-arthritic efficacy of ethanolic tamarind seed
extract has been demonstrated, along with a reduction of
the levels of inflammatory mediators and ROS (Sundaram
et al., 2015). In the skin, tamarind seed extracts significantly
decreased melanin and sebum contents when it was applied
as cosmetic emulsion (Waqas, Akhtar, Bakhsh, Caldeira, &
Khan, 2015). Alcoholic extracts of the seed reduced the in
vitro and in vivo enzymatic activity of phospholipase A,
coagulase, and caseinase, all present in snake venom, as
shown by Maung and Lynn (2012). Mucoadhesive poly-
mer microparticles from tamarind seed polysaccharides could
achieve selective deposition and retention of drugs in the
olfactory mucosa (Yarragudi et al., 2017). The inclusion of
tamarind seeds in the basal diet lowered the cholesterol levels
of normal rats. In addition, tamarind seeds suppressed high
blood glucose. Increased doses of tamarind seeds enhanced
glycogen storage in the liver in male Sprague–Dawley
and spontaneously hypertensive rats (Uchenna, Shori, &
Baba, 2017b).
3.2.19 Taperebá (Spondias mombin)
Different researchers have concluded that taperebá (Spondias
purpurea var. Lutea) is rich in carotenoids and xanthophills,
while phenolic compounds are the most abundant among dif-
ferent tropical fruits (Bataglion, da Silva, Eberlin, & Koolen,
2015; G. da Costa & Mercadante, 2018). The peels and seeds
are the main byproducts, representing 16% and 33% of the
fruit, respectively, as summarized in Table 2.
In this sense, Omena et al. (2012) found that quercetin is
the most concentrated polyphenol in the seeds and pulp of
two different varieties of the genus Spondias, while citric
acid is predominant among the organic acids. Such concen-
tration of bioactive compounds was reflected in the antioxi-
dant and acetylcholinesterase inhibition activities. In another
study, it was found that the incorporation of Spondias pur-
purea extracts develop a high inhibition of UVA and UVB
rays, due the presence of phenolic compounds, which showed
their usefulness to be incorporated in sunscreen formulations
(Silva, Costa, Branco, & Branco, 2016).
VALORIZATION OF TROPICAL FRUITS…
These overall results indicate the potential of the taperebá
byproducts as a source of phenolic compounds, which can act
as anti-inflammatory molecules and which seems to justify
their popular uses in traditional medicine.
3.2.20 Watermelon (Citrullus lanatus)
Watermelon, a widely known tropical fruit, offers energy,
water, minerals, and protein, while its seeds provide oil. With
these characteristics in mind, it is important to develop tech-
nologies able to valorize as much as possible the byproducts of
watermelon, mainly seeds (2% to 3%) and peel (30%), shown
in Table 2.
The phenolic content of the white rind of watermelon was
determined after a three-step extraction performed with 100%
water, methanol:water (70:30), and methanol:water:acetic
acid (70:29:1) in an ultrasonic bath. The phenolic content
ranged between 204.7 and 4290 mg GAE per 100 g DW, which
was associated with the antioxidant activity of the extracts
and the inhibition of tyrosinase (Baeeri, Sarkhail, Hashemi,
Marefatoddin, & Shahabi, 2018). In a similar study, hot water
extraction was used to extract polysaccharides from water-
melon rinds. As outcome, galactose was the dominant sugar in
the extracted polysaccharides, followed by arabinose, glucose,
galacturonic acid, rhamnose, mannose, xylose, and traces of
glucuronic acid. The findings revealed that the polysaccha-
rides displayed excellent antihypertensive and antioxidant
activities. Those polysaccharides had also a protective effect
against hydroxyl radical-induced DNA damage (Ramdhonee
& Jeetah, 2017). Al-Sayed and Ahmed (2013) incorpo-
rated watermelon rind powder in cake mixing, enhancing the
antioxidant activity of the cakes, due to the presence of pheno-
lic compounds (hydroxybenzoic acid, vanillin, and coumaric
acid) and 𝛽-carotene. Bioactives, polysaccharides (galactose,
arabinose, rhamnose, mannose, xylose, and glucose) isolated
from watermelon rinds by papain digestion gave antitumoral
activity to human laryngeal carcinoma Hep-2 cells in a
dose-and time-dependant manner (Dammak et al., 2019).
For the seeds of watermelon, studies mainly dealing with
the protein content have been performed. Thus, hydrolysates
obtained from watermelon seed protein were studied and
the results showed that the ultrasound pretreatment had
considerable influence on the structure of the proteins.
Moreover, watermelon protein hydrolysates with molecular
weight <1 kDa showed the highest antioxidant activities
and could protect cells from H2 O2 -induced oxidative stress
damage through activation of the Nrf2/HO-1 pathway (Wen,
Zhang, Zhang, Duan, & Ma, 2019).
Although the available information on watermelon is
scarce, it is clear that bioactives and nutritional components
can be isolated from the rind and seed of the fruit. Moreover,
the potential of the rind as a food ingredient as such makes
VALORIZATION OF TROPICAL FRUITS…
watermelon a valuable and important element with nutritional
potential.
4 OUTLOOK AND TRENDS IN THE
VA LORIZATION OF BY PRODUCTS
FROM TROPICAL FRUITS
The sustainability of food systems is related to public health,
environment, and economy and is important for the survival of
humankind. Apart from the societal and economical aspects,
food systems play an important role in the protection of nat-
ural resources, since they are directly related to greenhouse
gas emissions, pollution, and deforestation (Otles & Kartal,
2018).
As stated above, along with the increasing worldwide pro-
duction and consumption of tropical fruits, the byproducts
generated represent a challenge for sanitary and environmen-
tal reasons. There is still a lack of knowledge on how a whole
bio-refinery process can be applied to fully valorize tropi-
cal fruit byproducts. However, up till now, it is clear that
important steps, both in academia and society, are being taken
toward the complete utilization of byproducts from tropical
fruits, specially the most traded ones in terms of productiv-
ity and economic importance: mango, papaya, avocado, and
pineapple. Furthermore, it should be mentioned that different
techniques and protocols have been developed for extracting
valuable compounds from byproducts of these fruits, namely
seeds (oils and proteins) and peels (fibers) and antioxidants.
One important limitation is the limited specialized litera-
ture related with the less well-known tropical fruits. There-
fore, future research should be extended to other kinds of
tropical fruits, like those listed in Table 1, focusing on their
nutritional characteristics and possible economic value. With
respect to the most studied tropical fruits, it is evident that
more information is needed on the efficiency of industrial
extractions relevant in industry. Although nutritional and
techno-functional characteristics of valuable compounds iso-
lated from tropical fruits (that is, oils and pectins) have been
evaluated, the marketability and customer acceptance is also
a focus of study, since biorefining is not only based on the
process itself, but also on the economic benefits of the final
product.
As a general statement, utilization of byproducts from trop-
ical fruits as a source of antioxidants seems to be a common
factor in bio-refinery processing. Besides this, the use of the
byproduct per se for enriching the nutritional characteristics
of different foods has also been studied, with important out-
comes in the antioxidant properties and nutritional character-
istics due to the presence of fibers. Nevertheless, the impact
of extraction on the target compounds and interactions with
the vegetable matrix during extraction still needs to be stud-
25
ied, aiming to understand and design a completely optimized
extraction process.
Although basic valorization strategies are intensively stud-
ied and considered suitable for application on tropical fruit
byproducts, their capacity to recover valuable compounds,
and their effectiveness to create value from byproducts
remains quite limited, since these studies are normally per-
formed at lab scale where variables are easy to manage. It is
remarkable that most extraction processes for oils and bioac-
tive compounds are based on the use of organic solvents, while
changes in pH have been applied for precipitating pectins
and proteins. In addition, despite the amount of available
information on the characterization and extraction of bioac-
tives from tropical fruit byproducts, to our knowledge, there
is very limited information available on the pharmacokinet-
ics and pharmacodynamics of isolated and mixed compounds
when administered to humans. Since several compounds are
extracted from tropical food byproducts, multiple interactions
can occur with multiple human targets upon consumption. As
a consequence, the real effect might be uncertain during the
metabolic process, which can result in costly late-stage failure
(Motilva, Serra, & Rubió, 2015).
Based on the above mentioned, it could be stated that a full
valorization of fruit byproducts may perhaps be achieved via
developing new industrial links, throughout studying how the
type and amount of byproducts can be inserted within the dif-
ferent industrial sectors, starting with the agricultural segment
for a fair treatment of the raw material and, at the end, with
the precise enterprise to give added value to byproducts by
taking advantage of its nutritional characteristics. Here, it is
important to remark the conditions under which byproducts
should be treated. The microbial activity and the stability of
these compounds should be guaranteed during transportation
and storage of the raw material, in order to avoid spoilage and
maintain valuable components as intact as possible. This has
to be taken into account within the process design, both in the
equipment requirements as well as in the economic assess-
ment.
Moreover, assessing the sustainability of the whole recov-
ery process is also important in view of the preferences for
direct use of the final products. Overall, application of these
processing systems would enhance the development of the
agricultural sector and would also reduce the environmental
risks of fruit waste disposal. Characterization and proper pre-
treatment procedures of fruit byproducts can guarantee the
success of these valorization techniques.
5 CONC LU SI ON
In the present review, two scenarios were evaluated under
the context of biorefinery of tropical fruits, and their
26
potential use for valorization of byproducts. The chemical
characterization and the biobased assessment showed that
byproducts have potential for application in diverse food and
pharmaceutical products, as well as in the environmental field.
Some research articles revealed that not only a biorefinery
approach should be considered, but also a complete valoriza-
tion, aiming at higher extraction in view of the concentration
of useful compounds, which in turn relates to a reduction in
waste generation as a first step for implementing economic
and environmental efficient perspectives. However, there are
still several technological and economical challenges to over-
come in Latin America, since the implementation of technolo-
gies to operate a whole biorefinery process asks for economic
efforts.
AU THOR CONT RI B UT I O NS
José Villacís-Chiriboga compiled all the scientific informa-
tion, structured, and drafted the manuscript and the tables of
the document. Kathy Elst reviewed the scientific background,
technically structured the manuscript in a logic way, and made
the graphs with the summarized information. John Van Camp
reviewed the technical structure of the manuscript and cor-
rected the language. Edwin Vera contributed to organize the
overall structure and the tables of the document. Jenny Ruales
checked the overall structure and corrected the technical infor-
mation. Every author critically reviewed the paper.
ACKNOW LEDGMENTS
This work was performed within the frame of the TEAM
VLIR-UOS project “Improving Ecuadorian child nutrition
by using mango byproducts as potential sources of bioactive
compounds” and the PIMI 15-05 from EPN “Evaluación de la
biorefinería de subproductos del procesamiento de alimentos
para la obtención de compuestos de interés industrial.”
ORC ID
Kathy Elst https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9873-6379
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S U P P O RT I NG IN FO R M AT I O N
Additional supporting information may be found online in the
Supporting Information section at the end of the article.
How to cite this article: Villacís-Chiriboga J, Elst
K, Van Camp J, Vera E, Ruales J. Valorization of
byproducts from tropical fruits: Extraction methodolo-
gies, applications, environmental and economic assess-
ment – A Review (Part 1: General overview of the
byproducts, traditional biorefinery practices and pos-
sible applications). Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf.
2020;1–43. https://doi.org/10.1111/1541-4337.12542

Appendix A .
Use of tropical fruits byproducts for non-food application

Fruit Fraction Element produced Process Reference

Açaí Seeds CO, H2 , and CH4, for The gases were obtained with a cylindrical (Itai et al., 2014)
production of energy bodied downdraft gasifier with açaí seeds
in a fixed bed
Acerola Seeds Adsorbent of Cu(II) and Cd(II) Direct contact of grinded seeds with Cu(II) (A. Silva et al., 2018)
in contaminated water and Cd(II) under a pH between 5 and 6 and
less than 30 min. The absorption was
produced due the presence of carboxylic
acid groups
Avocado Peel Carbonaceous material Carbonization under a nitrogen atmosphere. (Palma, Lloret, Puen, Tobar,
alternative adsorbent for & Contreras, 2016)
dyes removal
Seed Adsorbent of Chromium and The adsorption was performed with the (Boeykens, Redondo,
Lead biomass as adsorbent in natural form, as a Obeso, Caracciolo, &
chemically activated form and as activated Vázquez, 2019)
carbon.
Banana Peel Films based on polymer Chemical treatment with acids and basis (Pelissari,
nanocomposites → cellulose combined with high pressure Andrade-Mahecha,
nanofibers homogenizing Sobral, & Menegalli,
2017; Tibolla, Pelissari,
Martins, Vicente, &
Menegalli, 2018)
Antibacterial films with Plasticization and crosslinking between (Kamel, Abd El-messieh, &
chitosan chitosan and banana powder with glycerol Saleh, 2017)
Paper pulp Kraft process for chemically extract fibers (Ramdhonee & Jeetah,
from banana peels, by using NaOH and 2017)
Na2 S

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42 VALORIZATION OF TROPICAL FRUITS…

Fruit Fraction Element produced Process Reference

Absorption of Mn (II), Cr (IV), Chemical modification of the structure of (Ali, 2017; Ali, Saeed, &
Pb (II) and dyes banana peels with acids, alkali or hydrogen Mabood, 2016;
peroxide for removal of peptic and viscous Brunerová et al., 2017;
compounds and expose the functional Oyewo et al., 2016; Wan
groups of cellulose (alkoxy, hydroxyl, Ngah & Hanafiah, 2008)
carbonyl, and amino). Furthermore, Mn
(II) and Cr (IV) were better removed after
the incorporation of an additional
monomer chain (-CH2=CH-C≡N)
Biochar for absorption of Pb(II) Exposition of functional groups such as (Zhou et al., 2017)
hydroxyl and carboxyl trough the addition
of phosphoric acid under extreme
conditions of pressure and temperature and
a later dehydration of the mixture. Ion
exchange and surface complexation were
confirmed as the main adsorption ways.
Bio ethanol Acid hydrolysis with 1.50% v/v acid (Gebregergs, Gebresemati,
concentration, 91.02 ◦ C temperature and & Sahu, 2016)
21.66 min retention time.
Citrus Seeds Bio-oil Sodium methoxide-catalyzed (Rashid et al., 2013)
transesterification with methanol; the
obtained methyl esters fulfilled
international standards for biodiesel
Acid ionic liquids Convertion to p-cymenesulphonic acid (Dwivedi et al., 2018)
dihydrate and neutralization with tertiary
amines
Peel and Activated carbon for absorption Sulfuric acid was used as activating agent. (Sudha, Srinivasan, &
seed of Ni (II) After the adsorption, the hydroxyl, Premkumar, 2015)
carboxylic and sulfonic acid groups were
shifted, implicating the participation of
these functional groups in the metal
binding process
Pectin and Succinic acid production by Dilute acid hydrolysis and subsequent (Patsalou et al., 2017)
essen- Actinobacillus succinogenes fermentation of hydrolyzates; although not
tial economically feasible, the bioprocess
oils constitutes a valuable alternative to the
application of energy intensive chemical
technologies
Drago fruit Peel Improved rumen Mixture of dragon fruit peel powder with (Matra et al., 2019)
roughage and concentrate. The supplement
resulted in improved in vitro rumen
fermentation, in vitro gas kinetics and
reduced methane production
Durian Seed Biofuels Mixture of hydrolyzed durian seed and (Seer, Nandong, & Shanon,
cassava powder fermented with 2017)
Saccharomyces cerevisiae¸ whit an ethanol
yield and concentration of 45.9% of
24.92 g/L, respectively.
Starch Adherent powder for crime The reason for this adherence can be assigned (Sekar & Zulkifli, 2017)
from scenes to the formation of hydrogen bonds
seeds between the fatty acids/glycerides of
sebum and the carbonyl and hydroxyl
group of the components in the seeds
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VALORIZATION OF TROPICAL FRUITS… 43

Fruit Fraction Element produced Process Reference

Peel Hydrogels for absorption of Extreme conditions of pressure and (Y. Wang et al., 2017)
organic liquids temperature and a final pyrolysis process
for obtaining a product characterized by an
abundant pore structure, rich basic surface
hydrophobic groups and large specific
surface.
Magnetic biochar for The presence of HNO3 and KMnO4 increases (Thines, Abdullah, &
production of the availability of acidic oxygenated Mubarak, 2017; Thines,
supercapacitors functional groups such as COOH and Abdullah, Mubarak, &
phenolic and OH on the biomass surface. Ruthiraan, 2017; Thines,
Moreover, the addition of metallic salts Abdullah, Ruthiraan,
favored the oxidization process to achieve a Mubarak, & Tripathi,
better porous structure with the attachment 2016)
of carboxylic and carbonyl group on the
surface of durian particles prior the
pyrolysis process.
Guava Seeds Activated carbon for removal Semi-carbonization and impregnation with (Anisuzzaman et al., 2016)
of chlorinated phenol from zinc chloride, which allowed the exposure
aqueous media. of amine, carbonyl, symmetric and
asymmetric alkyl and chloride groups.
Papaya Seeds Activated carbon for removal Semi carbonization and impregnation with (Krishnaiah et al., 2017)
of chlorinated phenol from zinc chloride for exposure of carboxyl,
aqueous media. ester and other groups
Passion fruit Peels Drug carrier Co-precipitation with poly (Oliveira et al., 2017;
(DL-lactide-co-glycolide) enhanced these Wijaya et al., 2017)
compounds bioactivities and provide
controlled release of antimicrobials
Pineapple Leaves Biofuels Saccharification and fermentation with (Chintagunta, Ray, &
cellulolytic enzymes. The residue was Banerjee, 2017)
inoculated with blue-green algae which
increased the concentration of nitrogen,
phosphorus and potassium and the
production of ethanol was 7% v/v
Pomegranate Peel Adsorbents of Azure A Modification of pomegranate peel with (Geçibesler & Toprak,
hydrochloric acid for exposing the 2017)
functional groups (O–H, N–H, C=C, C=O,
C– N, C–O)
Soursop Seed Bio-oil, biochar, gas The GC–MS analysis showed a composition (Schroeder, Nascimento,
of phenol derivatives, furan, acids, and Romeiro, Figueiredo, &
esters in the aqueous fraction; and in the Veloso, 2017)
case of the oil, also hydrocarbons were
identified by FTIR and 1 H NMR, which
indicates a potential of the oil for being
used as fuel
Tamarind Seed Bio oils Fixed bed fire-tube with optimized heating (Kader, Islam, Parveen,
pyrolysis; the FT-IR analysis revealed a Haniu, & Takai, 2013)
content of polymeric O-H, alkanes,
alkenes, nitrogenous compounds, alcohols,
phenol, esters, ether, and aromatic
compounds
Kernel Polymer Tamarind kernel powder and ethyl acrylate (del Real, Wallander,
were reacted by free radical polymerization Maciel, Cedillo, & Loza,
2015)