FOOD REVIEWS INTERNATIONAL

2016, VOL. 32, NO. 1, 1–14

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/87559129.2015.1041183

Orange and mango by-products: Agro-industrial waste as

source of bioactive compounds and botanical versus
commercial description—A review
Clarissa Hamaio Okino Delgado and Luciana Francisco Fleuri
Chemistry and Biochemistry Department, Institute of Biosciences, Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP),
Botucatu, Brazil

ABSTRACT KEYWORDS
Vegetal origin agro-industrial wastes are seen as a problem since the Agro-industrial wastes;
beginning of the industrial processes; however, they are becoming bioactive compound;
attractive as raw material for numerous purposes such as active botanical; by-product;
enzymes and in the molecule bioprospecting area. Moreover, it is mango; orange
difficult to understand what the studied residue is consisted of in
studies on agro-industrial waste, since the wastes names and consti-
tuents may vary according to the used equipment, as for waste from
orange and mango processing. Thus, defining a specific waste, includ-
ing comparisons between botanical and industrial descriptions, can
help in understanding studies about wastes. The current review
sought to contextualize such a scenario by gathering definitions,
relevant information and studies on agro-industrial wastes and by-
products, international enzymes market, and recent studies on bioac-
tive compounds. In this context, waste from orange and mango are
interesting because of the expression of these fruits on the world
market; moreover, the processing does not include steps that could
disrupt these biomolecules.

Introduction
Billions of tons of vegetables are globally produced, processed, and consumed. As a
consequence of this, billions of tons of waste are also generated. In the United States,
about 30% of all produced food is discarded. Proportionally, the United Kingdom and
Japan are the countries that discard the most, discarding 40% of their production.(1) Brazil,
due to its great agricultural production, is also a significant waste generator, the sum of
sugarcane, soybean, corn, orange, rice, and cassava crops annual (2009) production was
approximately 870 million tons of food and about 670 million tons of waste.(2,3)
Terms from the European Union (91/156/EEC)(1) Guideline 91/156/EEC of 18 March
1991 define waste as any substance or object that the holder discards or intends or is
required to discard, considering residue as everything that is not the final (main) product
of the process. Thus, even when a given process generates two products, the main one is
considered the product and the other is waste. Thus, the terms co-product and by-product
were employed to name secondary products.(4)

CONTACT Clarissa Hamaio Okino Delgado clarissaokino@gmail.com Chemistry and Biochemistry Department,
Institute of Biosciences, Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP), P.O. Box 510, 18618-000, Botucatu, SP, Brazil.
Color versions of one or more of the figures in the article can be found online at www.tandfonline.com/lfri.
© 2016 Taylor & Francis
2 C. H. OKINO DELGADO AND L. F. FLEURI

However, only a small portion of all waste generated during agro-industrial processes is
recovered as by-products, and the vast majority of them are not considered as viable for
further use and are discarded directly into the environment or are responsible for major
expenses with proper disposal. There are successful examples of by-products use as
biomass for energy production or as animal feed, and those are good alternatives to the
large volume of generated waste. Generally, due to such alternatives, industries that
generate waste minimize their costs, since breeders and energy companies bear the
shipping costs and, in some cases, they even pay small amounts of money per ton of
waste. Nevertheless, the waste may contain valuable substances such as pigments, sugars,
organic acids, flavors, and bioactive compounds such as antioxidants, enzymes, antimi-
crobial compounds, and fibers that could be thus applied to bioprocesses in order to
generate products with higher added value.(5)
A bioprocess can be defined as a transformation process involving raw materials
comprising living cells, such as fermentation processes that use microorganisms or part
of their cell such as the enzymes.(2)
It is often difficult to understand what the residue is consisted of in studies on agro-
industrial waste, since waste’s name and constituents may vary according to the used
equipment. For example, the word “orange peel” is used to name wastes generated when
the used equipment is homemade (is not industrial), because it only generates two
fractions, the peel and the juice. But, the same term “orange peel,” in industrial processing,
is used to denote the fraction comprising only part of the epicarp, since industrial
equipment used to produce orange juice can generate up to 10 different fractions of waste.
Therefore, the present review states a definition for waste based on orange and mango
processing as well as an overview on how to use such waste as source of bioactive
compounds and enzymes.
Waste processing and storing procedures are among the main obstacles for using waste
as a source of bioactive compounds and enzymes. In many cases, such procedures might
disrupt biomolecules by using high temperature or by adding chemicals to them, thus
reducing or annulling their activity. According to such context, fruit wastes seem to be
interesting because the processes that generate them are usually mechanical and do not
include steps linked to high temperatures or chemical adding, procedures that could
disrupt the biomolecules.
Therefore, the current review presents a definition of waste regarding orange and
mango processing, as well as an overview on using their by-product as a source of
bioactive compounds.

Bioactive compounds
Some authors consider bioactive compounds as any compound presenting a specific
action, regardless of the nutritional or structural function. They include primary and
secondary compounds resulting from metabolism of plants or those that are essential and
nonessential, such as vitamins, enzymes, and phenolic compounds.(6) But other authors
consider bioactive compounds as only those resulting from the secondary metabolism.(7)
Secondary metabolites are often produced in a subsequent growth phase, despite their
nutritional or structural functions. They are produced by restricted taxonomic groups of
microorganisms, have unusual chemical structures, and are often formed by mixing
 FOOD REVIEWS INTERNATIONAL 3

closely related members from a chemical family. Scientists believe that they are produced
in order to help improving their survivability and to enable interactions between plants
and the environment.(7,8)
There is no universally accepted classification for active compounds. Compounds from
secondary metabolism are commonly divided into three main categories, namely, terpenes
and terpenoids, alkaloids, and phenolic compounds. There are approximately 200,000
natural compounds derived from natural sources (including plants, animals, and micro-
organisms), but only about 5–15% of higher plants are chemically characterized.(9)
Moreover, there are lot of doubts about the constitution of bioactive compounds; thus,
the database of bioactive compounds are being constantly updated.(10)
Bioactive compounds are found in many fruit species.(11) Studies have demonstrated
that fruit consumption can lead to benefits from bioactive compounds. However, since
fruits represent a high cost production and compounds are found in small quantities
within such production, the consumption of large amount of fruits is required in order to
show bioactive compounds effectiveness. On the other hand, high concentrations of these
compounds are found in peels, kernels, leaves, and seeds, all of them waste constituents
from fruit processing studied as a source of biocompounds.
Because their possible effects are used in disease treating and preventing, bioactive
compounds obtained from fruit waste have been tested in vitro and in vivo and showed
promising results. They may indicate new opportunities for low-cost treatments, and natural
compounds may also lead to low side effects during treatments of many diseases.(12) Also,
plants can be good source of enzymes, there are many successful examples depicting the use
of plants as a source of enzymes, such as fruit papain (proteases), papaya leaves and latex
(Carica papaya L.), ascorbate oxidases from Curcubita species, wasabi peroxidase
(Armoracia rusticana L.), phosphoglycerol pivuvato carboxylase from maize leaves (Zea
mays L.), and the phytase found in cereals such as wheat (Triticum vulgare V.).(13,14)
Moreover, the use of these plants as a source of enzymes can be economically unfeasible
and controversial, due to their high cost as raw material and as well as to their use for
nonfood purposes. Therefore, the use of agricultural and agro-industrial by-products is a
good source of enzymes and it does not generate losses, since the main product (food) in the
process is produced as expected. The limiting factor for by-product use lies on the proces-
sing procedures, since high temperatures, extreme pH conditions, and the addition of
chemicals common industrial process procedures can denature the enzymes. Thus, fruit
processing in juice production is a good source of by-products because, in general terms,
disposed parts such as peel and seeds are rich in enzymes and do not receive treatments able
to disrupt such biomolecules.(13,15)

Products and by-products from orange

Worldwide, approximately 55 million tons of sweet orange are produced and Brazil stands
out as its largest producer. In the 2011 cultivation season, the country produced 19 million
tons of orange, and the state of São Paulo accounted for 76.1% of the production.(16,17)
The origin of orange is controversial, although it is generally considered to have
occurred primarily in the Malay Archipelago, China. Subsequently, it spread throughout
Europe during the Middle Ages and was brought to Brazil by the time the country was
discovered. Its cultivation was encouraged, because at that point in time, it was considered
4 C. H. OKINO DELGADO AND L. F. FLEURI

as an antidote to scurvy (a disease caused by severe deficiency of vitamin C and common

at the time of the great navigations).(18)
Most of the species considered as citrus belong to the genus Citrus, which is composed
of three species only: citron (Citrus medica L.), mandarin (Citrus reticulata B.), and
grapefruit (Citrus sinensis L.), and other genotypes derived from crossings between these
species.(19)
Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck is the most widely used species for concentrated juice
production in Brazil and in the United States. In Brazil, among the several commercial
varieties, Pera is the most relevant one. Field conditions including climatic factors, cultural
practices, selected varieties, and extraction methods influence fruit productivity and
composition, but only about 45–60% of the total fruit weight is converted into orange
juice, the rest of it is considered as by-product.(20,21)
For a long time, orange was evaluated due to its organoleptic properties only; however,
its biochemical composition is rich in secondary metabolites such as proteins, amines,
polyamines, carbohydrates, organic acids, lipids, phenols, flavonoids, terpenoids, aromatic
compounds, minerals, hormones, and vitamins. The use of orange as a source of these
biomolecules adds value to the fruit, which is widely used for fresh consumption, juice
processing, and essential oil extraction.(22)
About 40% of all orange produced in the world are converted into concentrated juice,
and United States and Brazil together produce 90% of all processed orange juice. However,
there is a great difference between the two countries: Americans prefer processed juice and
consume almost all the juice produced within the country; however, Brazilians prefer
consuming the fresh fruit; therefore, approximately 80% of the Brazilian sweet orange is
converted into frozen concentrated juice and exported, mainly to Europe.(16,17)
Orange juice extraction aims to separate the juice from the rest of the fruit. Depending
on the equipment used to do it, by-products are separated into different fractions. Among
the most used equipment are in J. B. T. Food Tech extraction line and is considered a
benchmark in developing equipment and technology for food processing.(22) The equip-
ment separates by-products into three fractions, called peel, core, and frit. The equipment
compresses the orange between the cups; pulp and juice are retained in the filter tube,
whereas peel and frit are separately disposed at the top, between the cup and the cutter.
Both the juice and the pulp within the filter tube are subjected to pressure, due to a
movement caused by the input of more material. It forces juice and pulp particles to pass
through the juice collector. Larger particles are disposed and sent to citrus pulp pellets
production. After extraction, the juice still holds pulp and core residues, which are
removed by additional equipment called finishers. They separate the pulp from the juice
by filtration.(23)
Orange juice extraction is a mechanical process. The standardizing stages are
carried out only after the extraction, and they may include the addition of chemical
compounds and preservation processes such as pasteurization that use high
temperature.(22)
Anatomically, orange is a fleshy and indehiscent simple hesperideous-type syncarpous
fruit. Its parts are epicarp, consisting of the fruit’s colorful and outer part; mesocarp,
composed by the white portion and located between the epicarp and the endocarp; and
endocarp, composed of buds, in which the seeds are inserted.(24)
 FOOD REVIEWS INTERNATIONAL 5

Figure 1. The relation between the anatomical parts and the fractions denominated by the orange
juice processing industry.

Comparing the botanical and industrial definitions of orange fruit constituents, the
fraction called peel consists of the epicarp; the fraction named frit (or peel fragment)
corresponds to the outer part of epicarp; and the core consists of the mesocarp. Figure 1
illustrates the relation among the fruit, its anatomical parts, and the designations used by
the orange juice processing industry.
The core is composed of mesocarp, which is also called albedo, and it constitutes the
largest by-product volume produced in orange juice processing. It corresponds to 42% of
the total of the fruit. It presents flavones (responsible for the bitter taste), pectin, cellulose
fiber, and minerals such as iron and chromium.(25)
The epicarp presents a high concentration of carotenoids and limonene, which are
among the substances with higher concentrations in citrus essential oils. The essential oil
is the most valuable by-product in orange juice processing, and it is widely used due to its
essence, coloration, and antimicrobial properties. Its concentration is about 0.3% of the
total fruit weight, and it is extracted by mechanical pressure. The oil storage glands are
concentrated in the outer part of the epicarp (frit). So, in order to facilitate the oil
extraction process, during the juice extracting process, the epicarp fraction is separated
from the rest of the peel.(16) The orange essential oil consists of a mix of substances,
including terpenes, which are compounds that are found in high concentration rates. They
also refer to hydrocarbons formed by the condensation of isoprene units (C5). They share
their origin with fatty acids and are classified as unsaponifiable lipids.(26)

Bioactive compounds and enzymes from orange wastes

Many bioactive compounds and enzymes have been identified in orange fruits and could
be extracted from orange juice processing waste.
6 C. H. OKINO DELGADO AND L. F. FLEURI

Carotenoids are one of the main natural pigments classes, and they are widely dis-
tributed within the plant kingdom. The pigments provide them the yellow, orange, and
red colors. There is a wide variety of carotenoids in orange fruits, such as violaxanthin,
antheraxanthin, zeaxanthin, mutatoxanthin, and β-cryptoxanthin in Valencia oranges.
The total of carotenoids is about 150 μg/100 mL of fresh orange juice, the main com-
pounds are β- and α-carotene, which are 43% of the total, whereas β-cryptoxanthin,
zeaxanthin, and lutein accounted for 10%, 4%, and 2%, respectively. They are used as
safe colorants by the food industry. Good examples of this use is the color of cheese and
butter.(27) These consumption of certain carotenoids has been associated with lower risks
of degenerative diseases in humans.(28)
Limonene is a terpene and is one of main compounds of the citrus essential oil,
accounting for more than 94% of the total content. It has been used for many applications,
such as biofuel, pesticide, and antimicrobial against species as Trichoderma viride,
Cladosporium herbarum, and Aspergillus flavus.(29) Actually, it has been studied for
medical application and it has shown to exert anxiolytic and regulatory effects on
neurotransmitters as well as antinociceptive effects and stimulant-induced behavioral
changes in dopamine neurotransmission.(30)
Various bioactive amines have been detected in orange fruits and have been shown to
perform different activities. Histamine and serotonin are psychoactive substances and act
in the neural transmission within the central nervous system. Since histamine is a potent
vasodilator; its effects can cause hypotension. Sipenephrine, a sympathomimetic amine, is
a vasoconstrictor and may increase blood pressure as well as relax bronchial muscles.(31,32)
Orange fruits hold a high content of natural antioxidants such as ascorbic acid,
flavonoids, and phenylpropanoids. Phenolic and polyphenolic compounds are likely the
most abundant phytochemicals in plants.(33) Among them, flavonoids constitute the main
subgroup, and they have been extensively reported as presenting a high antioxidant
activity. Orange peel extract showed a total antioxidant activity of 37 mg Trolox/L extract
(phenolic compounds included). Recent epidemiological studies associated antioxidant
consumption with a reduced risk of free radical related to oxidative damages and diseases
such as different types of cancer and cardiovascular or neurological diseases.(34,35)
Moreover, hydroxylated polymethoxyflavones and methylated flavonoids were identified
in sweet orange peel and showed effects against cell injury caused by oxidative stress. They
also showed cytoprotective effects against oxidative stress, due the phenolics bioactive
compounds from orange peel. It leads to the maintenance of cells normal redox status.(36)
Citrus peel is also an interesting source of phenolic compounds, including phenolic
acids, polymethoxyflavones, and glycosyflavanones, which have been extensively studied.
Polyphenols exhibit functional and nutraceutical activities, and they can be used in
food.(37,38) Beyond the antioxidant action, orange by-products are added to food due to
their antimicrobial activity, which is related to their high terpenoid, tannins, quinone,
phenolic acid, and polyphenol contents. The orange peel extract is able to inhibit
Escherichia coli and Listeria innocua growth by using extract concentrations of 0.5% and
1.0%, respectively.(14,39) Anti-inflammatory effects are other effects shown by polymethox-
yflavones at gene expression and enzyme activity levels. This compound is found exclu-
sively in the peels of the genus Citrus, particularly in peels of sweet oranges (Citrus
sinensis) and mandarin oranges (Citrus reticulate). At a dosage of 250 mg/kg, it led to
an anti-inflammatory effect comparable to ibuprofen as tested in cell-based in vitro and
 FOOD REVIEWS INTERNATIONAL 7

mouse paw edema in vivo model.(40) The orange peel extract at 2.0%, used for treating
apple juice, showed lower inhibition effect at 60% of inhibition rate of juice browning; it is
similar to the traditional treatment with ascorbic acid.(12)
Lipolytic enzymes obtained from sweet orange peel, core, and frit were able to catalyze
the oil hydrolysis, reaching 68.5 lipase U/g for the crude extract from the frit fractions.(41)
This group includes esterases (EC 3.1.1.1) and lipases (EC 3.1.1.3), and the difference
between them lies on their affinity to substrates: lipases catalyze the hydrolysis of trigly-
cerides composed by long-chain fatty acids, whereas esterases preferentially hydrolyze
“simple” esters and usually only triglycerides composed by short-chain fatty acids.(42)
Lipase catalyzes the hydrolysis of ester bonds from oils and fats and may act in synthesis
reactions (esterification, interesterification, alcoholysis, acidolysis, and aminolysis) in
nonaqueous media.(43) Lipids structures are directly linked to their physical and organo-
leptic properties; thus, different structures can be modified in order to achieve biotechno-
logical goals. The change in the composition of fatty acids and steroids, for instance, can
modify the nutritional values of fats and oils as well as lead to changes in the size, and the
degree of unsaturation of fatty acid chains can modify the melting point.(13,41,44)
Proteases (EC 3.4.21) are enzymes able to catalyze protein hydrolysis. Proteases were
detected in the extract of sour orange (Citrus aurantium L.), and showed a maximum
activity in acid pH and temperature around 65 °C. It also showed potential use in
bioprocesses, particularly as milk coagulant for cheese-making. Milk coagulation, in
most cheese-making processes, is caused by the action of proteases on milk proteins.(45)
Peroxidases (EC 1.11.1.7) are obtained from orange peels (Citrus sinenses). These
enzymes have multifunctional properties and can be applied in different analytical,
industrial, and biochemical processes, such as uric acid, glucose, and cholesterol
quantification.(46)

Products and by-products from mango

Mango is the second most widely produced tropical fruit in the world; India is the largest
producer (accounting for around 45%, or 15 million tons) and cultivates more than 1000
varieties of it. Brazil is the seventh one, representing 3% of the total production in the
worldwide and the second largest exporter, cultivating about 200 mango varieties. The
Brazilian region that most produces mango is the Northeast region, especially in the
Lower Basin of São Francisco Valley, where farming used about 38,000 hectares in 2011,
approximately 70% of which belongs to Bahia State.(47,48)
Mango belongs to the Anacardiaceae family, genus Mangifera, which has approximately
70 species, among which Mangifera indica L. is the most important one. It is an arborea-
size perennial tree, originated in South and Southeast Asia. It is now cultivated worldwide,
but only in places with tropical climate. Commercially, mangos are divided into two
groups, red mangos—those that remain with red bark when ripe, they include American
varieties such as Haden, Tommy Atkins, Keitt, Kent, and Palmer—and the yellow varieties
such as Totapuri and Afonso, which remain yellow skin when ripe. The red varieties
dominate about 90% of the world market of in natura mangos.(48,49)
Currently, Tommy Atkins is the most produced and commercialized variety. Coming from
Florida, USA, it is a medium- to large-sized fruit (460 g) with thick bark and oval shape;
showing staining of orange-yellow fruit covered with intense red and purple, the pulp is firm,
8 C. H. OKINO DELGADO AND L. F. FLEURI

juicy, and presents an average fiber content. It is resistant to anthracnose and mechanical
damages and has a longer retention period, representing 90% of mango exports in Brazil.(50,51)
They are climacteric fruits, so harvesting can occur at physiological maturity, when they
have not yet reached the consumption point (mature green stage), being then stored and
having its maturation controlled by refrigeration and by modified atmosphere.(35)
Mango chemical composition varies according to culture, selection, maturation stage
conditions, and other factors. But it is generally mostly composed of water, carbohydrates,
organic acids, minerals, proteins, vitamins (especially ascorbic acid), carotenoids, and
other pigments.(52)
The world market for mangos lasts throughout the year, but from April to September
the bid is higher, and between October and December it suffers sharp decline, mainly due
to production seasonality and exports from countries such as India, Mexico, Pakistan, and
the Philippines. Brazil, especially the region of Sao Francisco Valley, has climatic and
technological features that enable continuous production, allowing exportation in periods
in which other countries do not produce the fruit.(47,48)
The processing of excess fruits yields products such as mango in syrup, juice, nectar,
concentrated pulp, freeze dried mango, mango bar, cereals, jams, and jellies. Besides the
generated products, there is the possibility of using by-products due to the large number
of compounds in these wastes.(43,53)
Mangos are fleshy drupe-type fruit. The ripe fruit is composed of pericarp and exocarp,
which consists of epicarp (peel or bark), mesocarp (pulp or flesh), and endocarp (seed or
kernel). The epicarp is commonly called peel. The mesocarp corresponds to the pulp. The
endocarp, called core, is formed by a woody layer and an internal papyraceous membrane
rich in fiber. The endocarp involves a single seed, called kernel, which is wrapped by two
papyraceous integuments, the thin is the outermost layer of endocarp, which is rigid and
the staining is white-gray and well adhered to the core material and the integument

Figure 2. The relation between the anatomical parts and the fractions denominated by the mango
processing industry.
 FOOD REVIEWS INTERNATIONAL 9

covering the seed, which has brownish coloration. Figure 2 illustrates the similes between
the botanical and industrial definitions of mango parts.(54)
The mango peel corresponds to approximately 25% of the total weight of the dried
fruit, and it is rich in bioactive compounds and enzymes such as protease, peroxidase,
polyphenol oxidase, carotenoids, vitamins C and E, fiber, and carbohydrates.(55) By-
products from mango processing have many nutrients, and because of this, they are
used as animal feed, such as the use of mango peel in addition to broiler chicken feed(56)
and as culture medium for microorganisms producing many compounds, or on lactic acid
production by mango peel fermentation.(44)
The mango core basically consists of two parts, integument and kernel. The integument
is the seed’s outermost layer, and it surrounds the kernel and contains large amounts of
cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin. The kernel is the core part and consists of embryo and
albumen, and it has starch, cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, and fatty acids (oleic, stearic,
palmitic, and linoleic acids). The kernels generally represent 10% of the total fruit weight,
whereas the integument represents 6–11%.(57)
Fruit maturation results from coordinated changes in various metabolic pathways that
lead to changes in cell wall and synthesis of sugars, organic acids, pigments, and volatile
compounds.(58) These changes are catalyzed by hydrolases, for which the content changes
with maturation. The presence of lipids in mango seeds, such as palmitate, stearic, oleic,
linoleic, and linolenic acids,(59) corresponds to 6–12% of the total fatty acid weight.

Bioactive compounds and enzymes from mango wastes

Consumption of mango could provide significant amounts of bioactive compounds with
antioxidant activity to the human diet. Thus, mango fruits are considered as a source of
bioactive compounds used for processing aids and to prevent diseases as well as for
providing wellbeing and health; their daily intake in the diet has been related to the
prevention of degenerative processes such as cardiovascular diseases and cancer.(60)
Xanthones are pentacyclic triterpenes with pharmacological activity for such conditions
as inflammation, arthritis, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, renal disorder, hepatic toxi-
city, and antimicrobial action. Among mango xanthones, mangiferin (1,3,6,7-tetrahydrox-
yxanthone-2-glucopyranoside), a C-glucoside xanthone, has been identified in high
concentrations in the mango, extracted in the range of 2.0 g/100 g mango peel.(61−63)
Lupeol is a triterpene found in mangos, on concentrations of about 100 μg/100 g
mango peel, which induces tumor cells apoptosis under in vitro and in vivo situations.
Lupeols may have beneficial activity against inflammation, cancer, arthritis, diabetes, heart
diseases, renal toxicity, and hepatic toxicity.(64) Data from molecular studies with various
tumorigenic models suggest that lupeol modulates host systems, potentially enabling more
robust antitumor responses by Ras oncoprotein aberration and Fas receptors induction by
inducing their adaptor protein.(64,65)
Several studies demonstrated that mango by-products show high antioxidant activity,
due to bioactive compounds such as phenolic compounds, carotenoids, tocopherols, and
sterols. Such by-products have been studied as a safer natural alternative to synthetic food
antioxidants in biscuits, buffalo ghee, vegetable oils, potato chips, and functional food
formulations.(66,67)
10 C. H. OKINO DELGADO AND L. F. FLEURI

Mango peel and pulp showed cytoprotective and antiproliferative effects. The pulp
extract protected human cells from oxidative damage induced by H2O2. And the peel
extract inhibited DNA damage.(68) Similarly, the peel extract exhibited significant anti-
proliferative potential against cancer cells. This effect is probably correlated with its
phenolic and flavonoid contents.(68) The total polyphenol content in raw mango peels
ranged from 90 to 110 mg/g peel, whereas it ranged from 55 to 100 mg/g in ripe peels,
depending on their variety. The carotenoid content in mango peel extracts ranged from 74
to 436 μg/g.(69)
Compounds such as 1,2,3,4,6 penta-O-galloyl-β-D-glucose (PGG) found in mango
showed potential to control type 2 diabetes (associated with obesity). This compound
inhibited the activity of 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases, an oxidoreductase enzyme
directly involved with cortisone and cortisol interconversion.(70) Cortisol was involved in
many biological functions, so when in unbalanced levels, it can result in pathological
conditions such as obesity, diabetes, glucose intolerance, hypertension, dyslipidemia,
cardiovascular complications, and central nervous system–related complications such as
Alzheimer’s disease.(71)
Lipolytic enzymes obtained from mango peel, seed, and pulp are able to catalyze
hydrolysis of oils. Their ease of extraction, in addition to their abundance and low cost
of matrices, high activity (reaching 168.9 U/g/min for peel) over a wide pH and tempera-
ture range, also considering their affinity to different types of glycerides, such as triglycer-
ides, from different-size-chain fatty acids, turned this lipases into a potential alternative to
commercial lipases.(72)
Pectinases have been extracted from mango waste. Those enzymes are able to catalyze
the hydrolysis of pectin bonds in plant tissue. The addition of pectinase hydrolysis
carbohydrates allows better squeezing of the fruit, providing increased extraction yield
and increasing acid, flavoring, and colorant concentrations. Consequently, pectinases play
vital role in food processing industries, especially in production of beverages, and are
widely used for oils, syrups, and starch extraction.(73−75)

Conclusion
Innumerous bioactive compounds are found in orange and mango by-products. Given the
diverse biological effects of these by-products, and their abundance worldwide, waste
by-products should be considered as a viable source of these compounds. However,
most studies are still in the experimental phase, and the logistics and costs need to be
considered when applied in large scale.

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