FY/ Food Science/5 Fats and oils

Fats and Oils

Fats and oils belong to a group of compounds called lipids, which are insoluble in
water but soluble in fat solvents. Like carbohydrates, they are mainly made up of
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They contain much smaller proportions of oxygen than
carbohydrates and larger proportions of carbon and hydrogen. Hence, they are a more
concentrated source of energy providing 2 1/4 times more energy than carbohydrates
and proteins.
The lipids of importance to our health are fats, oils, and fatty acids,
phospholipids, lipoproteins, and sterols.
Classification of fats and oils
Classification based on Structure
Simple lipids: They constitute more than 98% of food and body fats. Simple lipids are
made up of three fatty acids attached to glycerol. They are mixed triglyceride which
means that more than one type of fatty acid is present in the fat, e.g., cooking oils and
butter.
Compound lipids: They are fats in which at least on fatty acid is replaced by
carbohydrate, protein, or phosphorous, i.e., they are fats + non-fat molecule, e.g.,
phospholipids, glycolipids, and lipoprotein.
Derived lipids: They are the breakdown products of fats and include diglycerides,
monoglycerides, glycerol, and fatty acids.
Sterol: They are not made up of fatty acids and glycerol but have a benzene ring
structure. These fat-like substances include cholesterol and fat soluble vitamins A, D, E,
and K.

Classification of lipids based on structure

Simple lipids Compound lipids Derived lipids Sterols

(made up of glycerol + 3 fatty acids) Diglycerides

Phospholipids lipoproteins Monoglycerides Cholesterol Vitamin D

Fats Oils lecithin HDL Ergostreol

Butter Groundnut LDL 7-Dehydrocholestrol

Cream Sesame VLDL

Hydrogenated- Sunflower chylomicrons

Fat Safflower

Suet

Lard

Tallow
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(a) Based on degree of saturation

LIPIDS

Fats and oils

Saturated Unsaturated

(But no double bonds) Monounsaturated Polyunsaturated

(One double bond) (Two or more double bonds)

(b) Based on origin

LIPIDS

Animal fat Marine oils Vegetables oils

(Solid at room temperature) Cod liver oil (mainly liquid at room temperature)

Butter (from milk) Shark liver oil

Lard (from hogs) Halibut oil Fats Oils

Tallow (from beef) Whale oil Cocoa butter Groundnut

Suet (from sheep and oxen) Coconut oil Sesame

Vanaspati Sunflower

Palm oil Safflower

Palmolein Rice bran

Corn

Mustard

Cotton seed

Olive

Properties

1. Fats are insoluble in water and soluble in a fat solvent like ether, acetone, etc.
2. They are greasy to touch.
3. They have a specific gravity less than one.
4. At room temperature fats are solid due to the high percentage of saturated fatty
acids. Oils are liquid because of the higher percentage of unsaturated fatty acids.
5. Fats do not melt sharply but soften over a range of temperature. This is because
fats are generally mixed triglycerides, each one having its own melting point.
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6. The spreading quality of a fat is due to its plastic nature. Solid fats which spread
are composed of a mass of tiny crystals in a matrix of liquid fat. The crystals slide
over one another as they are not trapped in the liquid oil and permit the fat to be
deformed.
7. When fat or oil is heated, the temperature at which a thin bluish smoke is given
off is called the smoke point. Fats used for deep fat frying should have a high
smoke point.
8. When fats and oils are heated to high temperatures, the fat is decomposed into
glycerol and free fatty acids. Glycerol is further broken down by high temperature
and acrolein is formed. Acrolein has a sharp odour and irritates the nose, throat,
and eyes.
9. Iodine value is a measure of the extent of unsaturated fatty acids present in fats
and oils.

Refining

The oil extracted by rendering, pressing, or solvent extraction is called crude oil. It may
contain undesirable constituents such as gums, free fatty acids, pigments, cellular
material, and odorous compounds such as aldehydes, ketones, and essential oils.
Crude oil needs several types of treatment to extend its shelf and make it suitable and
pure for use.

Steps in refining oil:

1. Settling: The cell debris is allowed to settle down and is removed by filtration.
2. Degumming and neutralization: The gum and free fatty acids present are
removed by steam distillation. Steam is passed through hot oil under pressure.
Water soluble low molecular weight fatty acids which are volatile are removed.

Hot oil is treated with sodium hydroxide or sodium carbonate. The free fatty
acids saponify and soap is separated out. This step is called alkali refining.

3. Bleaching: This step removes undesirable colouring and flavouring

contaminants. Pigments are removed by filtering the oil through activated
charcoal till it is light in colour.
4. Steam deodorization: Steam is injected into the hot fat under pressure. Low
molecular weight aldehydes, ketones, peroxides, and free fatty acids are
removed. The oil is cooled rapidly.

Winterization

After steam deodorization, the oils are chilled rapidly without stirring so that large
filterable crystals are formed. These crystals are composed of high molecular weight
triglycerides which have a high melting point. They are separated out by filtration and
the cold viscous oil obtained is said to be winterized.
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Winterized oil does not turn cloudy or solidify in the refrigerator. It is suitable to be
used in foods which require refrigeration, e.g., salad dressings and mayonnaise which
can be poured even when chilled. It is an important step in refining oil. Olive oil is not
winterized or deodorised as desirable flavour is lost in these processes.

Hydrogenation

Liquid oils can be converted to solid fats by a process known as hydrogenation. In this
process, hydrogen is added to unsaturated fatty acids. Some unsaturated fatty acids
become saturated and the melting point of the fat increases.

The hot oil and the finely divided nickel catalyst are stirred together under an
atmosphere of hydrogen. Hydrogen is introduced under pressure so that maximum is
dissolved in oil. The oil and catalyst are heated under vacuum. The reaction is
continued till the desired consistency of fat is obtained. The oil is cooled, filtered to
remove the catalyst, and chilled rapidly. By chilling small crystals are formed and the
fat gets a grainy texture.

H H

-C=C – Nickel - C- C-

H H H H
Unsaturated Saturated

(Double bond) (No double bond)

Hydrogenation is utilized in the manufacture of a wide variety of fats such as

vanaspati and margarine. These can replace costly animal fats such as butter
and clarified butter. The hardness of a fat depends on the degree of
hydrogenation. Sometimes additives such as antioxidants, monoglyceride, and
vitamin A and vitamin D are added to the fat. Air may be whipped in to impart a
snow white colour.

The factors to look for in shortenings are:

1. Creaming value: The ability to trap air. This affects the cake volume.
2. Shortening value: The ability to envelope the gluten strands and shortens them. Shortness is
necessary for biscuits, cookies, wafers and pastries.
3. Stability: The keeping quality of a shortening, which affects the shelf life of the product.
4. Consistency: Hardness or softness depending on the purpose, eg; hardness is needed for puff
pastry and softness for cake making
5. Water absorption power: Emulsification value

Melting point

The flow properties and ability to solidify into crystalline form that fatty acids exhibit are
related to their chain length and degree of saturation. Short chain fatty acids have
lower melting points than do long chain fatty acids. This means that long chain fatty
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acids are more likely to be solid at mixing temperatures than are short chain fatty
acids. When fats are very hard at room temperature, they may be poorly suited for
specific preparations, such as creaming a shortened cake mixture.

The other factor that affects melting points of fatty acids is the degree of saturation.
Saturated fatty acids (acids holding all of the hydrogen possible) have higher melting
points than do their counterparts containing double bond. The higher the degree of
unsaturation (the more the double bonds in fatty acid) the lower is the melting point.
This can be seen comparing the 69.6 ˚ C melting point of stearic acid( saturated 18
carbon fatty acid), the 14˚C melting point of linoleic (18 carbon fatty with two double
bonds) and 11˚C melting point of linoleic acid ( also an 18 carbon fatty acid, but with
three double bonds)

Smoke point

Smoke point of a fat is the temperature at which smoke comes continuously

from the surface of the fat on heating. Because fats differ in their smoke points, fats
to be used for frying should be chosen on the basis of their resistance to smoking at
the temperature used for cooking. The breakdown of the fat during frying causes a
decrease in the smoke point. A fat that had undergone prolonged use will begin to
smoke at temperature too low frying.

Suspended matter such as flour or batter particles also lower the smoke point. And the
greater the surface of the fat exposed, the lower is the smoke point. Fats heated in
shallow wide pans with slightly sloping sides begin to smoke at lower temperatures
than those heated in smaller pans with vertical sides.

The smoke point of a fat is partly a matter of its natural composition and partly a
matter of the processing it has received.

Fat deterioration

When fats and oils are stored, they undergo flavour changes, particularly if the fats are
highly unsaturated and the conditions are conducive to chemical changes in the fats.
The various chemical changes that can occur in fats bringing about flavour
deterioration are:

a) Heat reaction resulting in the formation of acrolein.

b) Development of undesirable odours and flavours due to rancidity or reversion.

Polymerization

This takes place because of the intense heat which the fat is subjected to during
frying. Lipolysis or lipid breakdown takes place and free fatty acids are released.
These free fatty acids undergo further changes and form polymers. Polymerization is
generally seen in fatty acids with one double bond. The larger polymers increase the
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viscosity of the hot fat. The colour darkens and the quality deteriorates. Gum may be
formed at the edge of the vessel.

It is of utmost importance to avoid unnecessary heating of fats and oils and controlling
frying temperature and time. If the fat is not hot enough, excess fat is absorbed by the
food. If the fat is too hot, the surface browns but the food is not cooked. The moisture
should be removed before frying a food. Fat used for frying should have a high smoke
point.

Rancidity

The development of any disagreeable odour and flavours in fats and oils causing
spoilage is known as rancidity. This change is observed when fats and oils are stored
for some time. Rancidity develops in fats, oils, and the fatty phases of foods, such as
pickles, fried snacks, cakes, cheese and salad dressings.

Different types of oil and fat show varying degrees of resistance to spoilage, thus most
vegetable oils deteriorate only slowly whereas animal fats deteriorate more rapidly,
and marine (fish) oils which contain a relatively high proportion of highly unsaturated
fatty acids deteriorate most rapidly.

Vegetable oils resist oxidation because of the presence of antioxidants which occur
naturally in the tissues and which are present in oil when it is pressed, e.g., vitamin E
or tocopherol. The antioxidants get readily oxidised themselves and protect the oil
from oxidation.

Types of Rancidity: Two types of rancidity are commonly observed in food, namely:

1. Hydrolytic rancidity
2. Oxidative rancidity
Hydrolytic rancidity is brought about by hydrolysis of triglyceride molecule to
glycerol and free fatty acids by the presence of moisture in oils. The rate of
hydrolysis is hastened by:
1. The presence of enzymes, e.g., lipases present in oils which have not been
subjected to heat treatment
2. Micro-organisms like moulds, yeasts, and bacteria present in oils or
contaminants during processing.

The nature of the unpleasant flavours and odours produced by hydrolysis

depends upon the fatty acid composition of the triglyceride. If the triglyceride
contains low molecular weight fatty acids (4 – 14 carbon atoms), hydrolysis
yields free radicals having characteristic unpleasant taste and odour. For
example, hydrolysis of butter yields the rancid smelling butyric acid. Oils
containing fatty acids with more than 14 carbon atoms yield free acids which
are odourless and flavourless.
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Auto-oxidation: The spontaneous uptake of oxygen by the unsaturated oils exposed

to air is known as oxidative rancidity. It is the most common and important type of
rancidity which results in the production of rancid or tallowy flavours. It is caused by
the reaction of unsaturated oils with oxygen. Moisture and impurities do not have any
effect on oxidative rancidity. Pure and refined oils can turn rancid on exposure to
oxygen. Oxidative rancidity is a complex process in the form of a chain reaction. Once
the reaction begins it is a continuous process.

The reaction occurs in two stages:

1. Induction period in which the fat or oil gradually takes up oxygen from the air. Heat, light and
traces of metal help in the formation of free radicals. The free radical is formed by the removal
of a hydrogen atom from the carbon adjacent to the carbon involved in the double bond. The
free radical combines with two oxygen atoms, forming peroxide. The peroxide formed combines
with another hydrogen atom from another fatty acid to form hydro peroxide and a new free
radical. This new free radical again takes up two oxygen atoms and the chain reaction
continues till all unsaturated fatty acids are used up or all oxygen gets exhausted.
The products of oxidation are auto-catalytic so that the uptake of atmospheric oxygen is
accelerated as rancidity progresses and new free radicals continue to be formed. Rancidity is
detected at this stage.
2. In the second stage the peroxides and hydro peroxides formed rapidly break down into
aldehydes, ketones and alcohols which contribute to the undesirable flavours and odours in
rancid fat.

Factors affecting auto oxidation

1. Traces of metals such as copper, iron, nickel, catalyse oxidation rancidity by reducing the
length of the induction period and increasing the rate of formation of free radicals. Since
these elements catalyse oxidation rancidity, they are known as pro oxidants.
2. Haematin compounds are also powerful catalysts and can catalyse oxidation reactions in
the fats or meats even during frozen storage.
3. Light accelerates the development of rancidity.
4. The presence of free fatty acids.
5. The degree of unsaturation.

Reversion
Many fats and oils undergo a change in flavour before becoming rancid. This
change which is very different from the rancid flavour is called reversion. In
rancidity the change in flavour is the same for all fats. But in reversion the
flavour may be buttery, beany, grassy, painty, and fishy. Reversion is seen in
fish oils, linseed and Soya bean oil. Very small amounts of oxygen are required
as compared to oxidative rancidity.
Differences between rancidity and reversion
Rancidity Reversion
1. May be hydrolytic or oxidative leading to Flavour change develops before onset of
typical flavour changes of rancid oil. rancidity with very little oxidation.
2. All oils can turn rancid, e.g., maize, Only some oils revert, e.g., Soya bean
groundnut, sesame, sunflower, safflower, and oil, rapeseed, fish oils, and linseed oil, i.e., oils
mustard painty or grassy depending on the oil with high proportion of unsaturated fatty acids.
which reverts.
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Factors that affect rancidity and reversion

Temperature: High storage temperatures accelerate the development of off-odours

and flavours in fats and oils

Moisture: Low moisture content in cereals especially breakfast cereals to keep them
crisp, accelerates their deterioration due to rancidity.

Presence of moisture in butter and oils brings about hydrolytic rancidity. In butter,
the enzyme lipase hydrolyses butter fat to butyric acid, which gives stale butter a
rancid smell. When butter is heated to prepare clarified butter or pure ghee, the
enzyme lipase is inactivated and moisture from butter is removed by heat. Clarified
butter can be stored at room temperature and does not turn rancid.

Air: The amount of air in contact with the fat or oil is an important factor in determining
its shelf life. Auto-oxidation or oxidative rancidity occurs when fats are exposed to
oxygen. Reversion occurs with very minor amounts of oxygen. Potato chips and salted
nuts because of their large surface area turn rancid at a faster rate.

Light: Light accelerates the development of both rancidity and reversion.

Metals: The presence of metals in traces accelerates the development of both

rancidity and reversion as they are active pro-oxidants. Metal contamination can occur
from equipment used for extraction and refining of oils. Rust from steel equipment,
traces of copper, lead, zinc, and tin can accelerate the onset of rancidity

Degree of Unsaturation: This is an important criterion for oxidative rancidity and

reversion. Oils containing high proportions of unsaturated fatty acids and shortenings
made from such oils show flavour reversion. Oils with high proportions of linolenic and
linoleic acids revert. Oils with unsaturated fatty acids turn rancid.

Absence of Antioxidants: The natural presence or addition of antioxidants to oils

prevents rancidity. Vitamin E or tocopherol is naturally present in vegetable oils and
acts as an antioxidant preventing auto-oxidation of oil. The antioxidant takes up
oxygen and gets oxidized, thereby preventing rancidity.

ANTIOXIDANTS

Antioxidants are compounds that prevent oxidation. Oxidation is the process that turns
newspaper yellow and cut apples brown. Oxidation leads to degenerative changes in our body,
i.e., it contributes to the breakdown of body cells as we age. Antioxidants such as vitamin C,
vitamin E, beta-carotene, and selenium help protect against free radical damage. They scavenge
free radicals and protect body cells against cancer. They prevent atherosclerosis and Coronary
Artery Diseases (CAD).

The sources of antioxidants are listed below:

1. Vitamin E Soya oil, sunflower oil, almonds, spinach, and mint

2. Vitamin C: Amla, guava, green leafy vegetables, all citrus fruits, papaya, tomato,
cabbage, and capsicum are good sources.
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3. Beta-carotene: All green leafy vegetables, and all yellow, orange, and red fruits and
vegetables
4. Selenium: whole grains, whole pulses, green leafy vegetables and cauliflower
5. Non-nutrient antioxidants Phenolic compounds, flavonoids, and isoflavones present in
beans, cloves, oats, tea, coffee, grapes, turmeric, mustard, red wine, etc,

Prevention of rancidity

Disagreeable odours and flavour in fat can be prevented by the following ways:

1. Store fat at low temperatures in a cool, dark place.

2. Use airtight containers. Keep minimum headspace.
3. Do not keep strong smelling foods in the vicinity of fats and oils as they absorb foreign odours
and get tainted.
4. Copper containers and rusted iron accelerate rancidity. Only steel or aluminium should be used.
5. Avoid undue exposure to light and air. Expose minimum surface area.
6. If antioxidants are added to fats rich in unsaturated fatty acids, oxidative rancidity can be
significantly delayed. Tocopherol (vitamin E) and lecithin are antioxidants naturally present in
some oils. Synthetic antioxidants such as Butylated Hydroxy Toluene (BHT), Butylated Hydroxyl
Anisole (BHA), and TBHQ (Tertiary Butyl-Hydro-Quinone) added to oil in which snacks are fried,
Ethylene Diamine Tetra Acetic Acid (EDTA), citric acid, or ascorbic acid may be added to fats to
prevent rancidity. These substances act as scavengers and bind copper and other metals
present which cause oxidative rancidity. Tocopherols and ascorbic acid are excellent
antioxidants.
7. If fats and oils have to be stored for some time, they should be hydrogenated and stored.
Hydrogenation increases the shelf life of fats and prevents rancidity.

Effect of heat
During cooking or prolonged heating of fats and oils certain changes are seen:
1. There is an increase in the free fatty acid content.
2. Smoke point is lowered.
3. Iodine number decreases.
4. Melting point falls.
5. Fat turns darker in colour
6. Fat gets polymerized
All these changes influence the overall quality of food. These changes are faster when
the cooking temperature is increased.

Care of fats and oils

Fats and oils are used in many preparations and as a method of cooking food. If care is not
taken while heating and storing fats, it may result in wastage of food as well as the fat used
in preparing it. The following points should always be kept in mind while handling fats and
oils in the kitchen.

1. Do not overheat fats, as they decompose at high temperature.

2. Follow a time and temperature chart for frying foods.
3. Cover fats when left in the deep fat fryer and ensure that the temperature does not exceed
200◦F
4. Strain fat after use and used fat should be stored in closed containers in the refrigerator.
5. When fat has to be reused for frying, replace with equal quantity of fresh fat
6. Do not use fats with a low smoke point for frying
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7. To prevent fat from going rancid, it should be stored in an airtight container away from light
8. Fat should be stored in tall containers to keep minimum surface areas exposed
9. Always remember that fats and the fatty phases of foods take up flavours and odours of other
foods stored nearby
10. Copper or rusted containers should not be used for storing fat.
Some saturated fatty acids present in food

FATTY ACIDS NO. OF CARBON ATOMS FOOD SOURCE

Acetic acid 2 Vinegar

Butyric acid 4 Butter

Caproic acid 6 Butter

Caprylic acid 8 Coconut, palm kernel

Lauric acid 12 Palm kernel, coconut

Myristic acid 14 Coconut, butter

Palmitic acid 16 Palm, soya, sesame, butter, lard, cotton seed

Stearic acid 18 Beef tallow, cocoa butter, lard

Some unsaturated fatty acids present in food

FATTY ACID NO. OF NO. OF FOOD SOURCE

CARBON DOUBLE
ATOMS BONDS
Oleic acid 18 1 Groundnut, sesame, olives, butter, cocoa butter, cashew nuts, a avocado
Linoleic acid 18 2 Safflower, sunflower, cottonseed, corn, soya bean, groundnut, salmon, tuna

Linolenic acid 18 3 Soya bean, rape seed, sesame, butter

Arachidonic acid 20 4 Animal fats, groundnut

Eicosapentaenoic acid 20 5 Fish oils
Erucic acid 22 6 Rape seed oil/mustard oil

Commercial uses of fats and oils: Fats and oils are used in the food industry
because of their ability to:

1. Increase the tenderness

2. Form emulsions
3. Spread and be plastic
4. Fry or cook food
5. Get creamed and form foams
6. Impart flavour, aroma, and colour to food

Fats available in the market are specially manufactured for a variety of applications. Separate
hydrogenated fat are available for each of the following:

1. Crispness of biscuits
2. Puff pastry and kharis for excellent layer separation, i.e., highly plastic variety available as
vanaspati or as margarine
3. Soft and tender cakes with high volume
4. Softer bread with easy dough handling
5. Cream filling for cakes and biscuits
6. Crunchy cookies and biscuits
7. Easy release of baked products from the baking pan.
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Questions

1. Classify fats and oils

(a) Based on structure
(b) Based on origin
(c) Based on degree of saturation
2. List any five properties of fats.
3. Discuss the steps in refining oil.
4. Write short notes
1. Winterization
2. Hydrogenation
3. Shortening
4. Smoke point
5. Rancidity
6. Reversion
7. Antioxidants
8. Effect of heat on fats and oils
9. Commercial uses of fats and oils
5. Give any five uses of commercial fats and oils.
6. Give any five uses of hydrogenated fats.

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By Mrs .M. Mathew