SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 4

4.1 CORRELATION
4.2 TESTING OF HYPHOTHESES
4.3 REGRESSION

4.1 CORRELATION
In the field of mathematics called statistics, the relationship between these two variables is known as
correlation.

Correlation
Correlation measures the association or the strength of the relationship between two variables
say, x and y.

Set of hypothesis data

The relationship between these two sets of data is found out through computation, it is essential to first
discuss the three types of correlation. When a variable increases while the other decreases, these variable
are indirectly correlated or negatively correlated, but when one variable increase and the other increase as
well or one variable decreases, as well as the other variable, the two variables are directly correlated or
positively correlated.
Example 1: supposed a ten-item test in English and a ten-item in mathematics were administered to ten
students. The scores of the students are tabulated below it must be determined if the scores in the
mathematics quiz (here labelled variable x) and the English test (labelled variable y) are correlated or not.

STUDENT MATHEMATICS SCORE (x) ENGLISH SCORE (Y)

1 4 5
2 5 4
3 9 8
4 2 3
5 8 9
6 1 2
7 2 1
8 7 6
9 6 7
10 4 5

Definitions
4.1.1 two variables are positively correlated if the values of the two variables both increase or both
decrease.
4.1,2 two variables are negatively correlated if the values of one variable increase while the values of the
other decrease.
4.1.3 two variables are not correlated or they have zero correlated if one variable neither increases nor
decreases while the other increase
Karl Pearson 1857-1936
Was an influential English mathematician and biostatistician. In 1911, he founded the world’s first
university statistics department at the university college London, and contributed significantly to the field
of biometrics, meteorology. Social Darwinism and eugenics.
While a scatter plot may be a convenient way of inspecting correlation between two variables, it does not
offer a measure of strength of a correlation. Karl Pearson invented a formula that can give a numerical
value to the measure of a correlation. This formula does not only show how greatly two data sets are
correlated but also reveals if the correlation is direct or inverse, or if the data sets are not correlated. The
formula named after him is called the Pearson product-moment correlation.
The degree of correlation between two data sets x and y is represented by the Pearson product- moment
correlation coefficient r xy which can have values from -1 to 1,1 representing a strong positive
relationship, if the coefficient r xy=0 then there is no relationship between the two variables. The Pearson
produc-moment correlation formula.

Definition 4.1.1 the spearman’s rank order correlation is the non-parametric version of the Pearson
product-moment correlation. Spearman’s correlation coeffiecient, (p, also denoted r) measures the
strength and direction of association between two ranked variables.
𝑟=1−6∑𝑑
𝑛(𝑛−1),
where 𝑟  represents the coefficient, 𝑛 is the number of data pairs, and 𝑑   is the square of the
difference in the ranks of the two coordinates for each data pair.

4.2 TESTING HYPOTHESES

Definition
4.2.1 Population is the total number of people, animals other living or non-living things under
consideration. A population has to be well defined so you know exactly what belongs and what does not
belong to the population.
4.2.2 Sample is the portion or part of the population.
There are several types of data The Artificial nominal, The real nominal, The ordinal, The interval, and
The rational data. There are several ways of gathering data, you could use survey, either through
interview or questionnaire which may be done and gathered through mail, internet, telephone, or other
means.
4.3 REGRESSION
The height of a person and the length of his or her hand are observed to be positively correlated. To
confirm this observation, you can collect actual measurements of the heights of your classmates and the
corresponding lengths of their hands. Then graph each paired datum, the x coordinate being height and
the y coordinate being the length of the hand. If you fit a straight line on the points of the graph, you will
see an upward or increasing trend from left to right. From the discussion in the previous section, this trend
indicates positive correlation, thus, implying that the taller the person is, the longer his or her handsare.
You can go further by asking “ given the height of a classmate, can I estimate the length of his or hands?
You need to determine the equation of the line that best fits the collected data. This line is known as the
line of best fit.
From algebra that the a straight line can be represented by a linear equation usually in the slope-intercept
form. The linear equation can be of the familiar form.
Y=mx + b
Where m is the slope and b is the y-intercept, given a set, the constants m and b are determined from the
formula.