Mechanical Measurement

Unit No. 4
Acceleration Measurement
 Acceleration Measurement

• Acceleration is a dynamic characteristic of an object.

• Acceleration (a) can be obtained via inertial force (F) on a mass (m)
subjected to acceleration (a) of the moving object:
F=-ma
• The inertial force can be measured either through strain (if the
deformation is min) or through the deformation of the elastic element.
 Theory of Accelerometers
• An accelerometer is an electro-mechanical device that measures
proper acceleration forces. These forces may be static like the constant
force of gravity pulling at your feet, or they could be dynamic - caused
by moving and the vibrating accelerometer.
• Accelerometer: It is in general used for a device that measures linear
acceleration.
• Absolute Accelerometer: It measures the inertial force exerted on the
seismic mass. It is attached to the measured object and does not need a
reference.
• Relative Accelerometer: It measures the distance between the
measured object and the reference point. The reference point should be
stable or moving with constant speed. Relative accelerometers are
mainly used to measure vibrations from a distant stable point (e.g. by
laser vibrometers).
Applications of Accelerometer:
• They are components of inertial navigation systems for aircraft and
missiles.
• They are used to detect and monitor vibration in rotating machinery.
• They are used in tablet computers and digital cameras so that images
on screens are always displayed upright.
• They are used for flight stabilization.
• Acceleration Sensors: They are frequently used to determine the
speed and the position of various vehicles, such as planes, ships, cars,
robots, etc.
They can be classified according to the physical principle they use:
• Direct measurement of a force (piezoelectric sensor, sensor with force
balance).
• Indirect measurement, using displacement or deformation of a sensing
element.
The inertial force can be measured either through strain (if the
deformation is minimum) or through the deformation of the elastic
element.
The different families of accelerometers:
• Different uses and required accelerometers:
• Accelerometer Characteristics: An accelerometer can be specified as
a single-degree-of-freedom device, which has mass, a spring, and a
frame structure with damping properties. A mathematical model of an
accelerometer is;
• Accelerometer characteristics: A correctly designed, installed, and
calibrated accelerometer should have one resonant (natural) frequency
and flat frequency response.
• Frequency response: The outputs signal over a range of frequencies
where the sensor should be operating.
• Sensitivity: is specified as 1 V/g , where g= 9.80665 m/s2
• Resonant frequency:
Undamped sensor: clearly defined peak that can be 3–4 dB higher
than the response at the reference frequency.
Critically damped device: the resonant may not be visible; therefore,
the phase shift is measured.
• Linearity: is specified over the dynamic range of the input signals.

• Selection of Accelerometers: The instrument mass is particularly

important in choosing between the different types of an accelerometer
for a particular application. This should be very much less than that of
the body whose motion is being measured, in order to avoid loading
effects that affect the accuracy of the readings obtained. In this respect,
instruments based on strain gauges are best.
Accelerometer
 Vibrometers
• Vibrometers or seismometer is an instrument
that measures the displacement of a vibrating
machine or structure.
• The instrument shown in the figure works as a
vibrometer for a very large value of r.
• Vibrometer (also known as a low-frequency
transducer) is used to measure the high-
frequency ɷ of a vibrating body.
• Since the ratio r is very high, so the natural
frequency of the instrument is low.
• Low natural frequency means the heavy mass of the body of the
instrument which makes its rare application in practice, especially in
systems that require much sophistication.
• The frequency range of a vibrometer depends upon several factors
such as damping, its natural frequency, etc.
• It may have a natural frequency of 1 Hz to 5 Hz.
Vibrometers
Vibrometers
• So the relative amplitude Z is shown equal to the amplitude of
vibrating body B on the screen.
• Though Z and B are not in the same phase but B being in a single
harmonic will result in the output signal as true reproduction of input
quantity.
• The various type of amplitude measuring instruments are as follows
1. Stylus recording instrument
2. Seismic instrument or seismometer or vibration pickup
3. Optical recording instrument
4. Capacitance pickup
5. Simple Potentiometer
6. Mutual inductance pickup
1. STYLUS RECORDING INSTRUMENTS
• It consists of a drum that is rotating about
the Y-Y axis and a stylus that is pivoted at a
fulcrum ‘O’. To the other end of the stylish,
a link is attached that pickups up the
vibratory motion from the vibrating machine
or structure.
• The motion between the rotating drum and
linear moment of stylus plot an amplitude of
vibratory motion on paper which is attached
to the drum.
2. SEISMIC INSTRUMENT
• A seismic instrument consists of a spring
mass-damper system in a frame or casing
which is mounted on the vibrating machine
or structure to measure the displacement
amplitude of a vibratory motion.
• The Mask 'm' is supported in a frame or
casing using a spring having 'K' and
dashpot of damping coefficient 'c'. the
frame or kissing his fastened to the
vibrating body so that it vibrates along
with the vibrating body. The thermometer
is equivalent. to a spring-mass-damper
system having a base or support excitation.
3. OPTICAL RECORDING INSTRUMENT
• Light source sends the light signal through a lens to on mirror. The
mirror is attached to a vibrating body by means of some linkage. The
light which is reflected from the mirror falls on a sensitized film on the
revolving drum and lots the displacement of vibratory motion.
4. SIMPLE POTENTIOMETER.
• It consists of a voltmeter a battery and
resistance. A needle is connected to the
vibrating body and it is allowed to slide on
the resistance.
• The change in voltage due to the
movement of the needle on the resistance
is recorded this voltage is proportional to
the amplitude of vibrations.
5. CAPACITANCE PICK-UP
• Capacitance pickup is non contacting
active type vibration measuring instrument
which generates an output proportional to
the displacement of the vibratory motion.
• change in capacitance due to variation in
the air gap is utilized in an RC circuit to
indicate the amount of vibratory
displacement.
6. MUTUAL INDUCTANCE PICK-UP
• The mutual inductance pick up is also a
non-contacting active pickup which is
very useful for a non-magnetic metallic
vibratory surface
• The mutual inductance L changes due to
the variation in the air gap between the
vibrating surface and the pick-up. This
changes the field due to Eddy current in
the vibrating body, this field opposes the
field set up by the primary coil. The output
voltage is modulated by the vibratory
motion and demodulated output is
proportional to the displacement.
• Application :
In industrial research and development, vibrometers are used to study
objects of many different sizes, ranging from entire car bodies, airplane
components, engines, and buildings to tiny micro-machines and hard
drive components.
 Strain Gauge Accelerometer
• Strain gauge accelerometer: A practical accelerometer uses four
unbonded strain gauges is given. The space between the seismic mass
and casing is filled with liquid to provide damping. The unbonded
strain gauges are stretched fine metal wires, which provide the spring
restoring force as well as act as secondary displacement sensors.
• The gauges are prestressed, so that at zero acceleration each gauge
experiences a tensile strain e0 and has a resistance R0 (1 + Ge0 ). If
the casing is given an acceleration (a), then the resultant displacement
of the seismic mass (m) relative to the casing is;

• where k is the effective stiffness of the strain gauges. Gauges 1 and 3

increase in length from (L) to (L + x), and gauges 2 and 4 decrease in
length from (L) to (L − x). The tensile strain in gauges 1 and 3
increases to (e0 + e), and that in gauges 2 and 4 decreases to (e0 − e),
where:
• The four gauges are connected into a deflection bridge circuit. In order
to ensure that all four gauges are kept in tension over the whole range
of movement of the mass, the maximum acceleration induced strain is
only one-half of the initial strain, i.e.

• Thus the acceleration input span is proportional to the square of the

natural frequency. A family of accelerometers of this type, using 350 Ω
gauges, cover the ranges ±5 g to ±500 g with natural frequencies
between 300 and 3000 Hz and a damping ratio of 0.7 ± 0.1
Strain Gauge Accelerometer
 Piezoelectric Accelerometers
• Piezoelectricity is defined as the electric polarization of certain
crystals caused by a mechanical strain.
1. The piezoelectric materials are sensitive to compressive linear stress
and shear.
2. The piezoelectric materials can be divided into two categories:
crystals and artificially polarized ferroelectric ceramics containing
barium Titanate and lead Zirconate.
3. The choice of material depends on the working environment and the
measurement to be carried out.
• General principle: The piezoelectric element is placed in such a way
that when the unit is in vibration, a mass applies a force proportional
to acceleration to the piezoelectric element.
• The piezoelectric accelerometer has capacitive impedance, and
generally it cannot be connected to the circuit having resistive input
impedance.
• The discharge of the capacity would be too fast.
Piezoelectric Accelerometers
Thank you