PROJECT REPORT

NAME : ANKIT KUMAR DANTLA

CLASS : XIIth

SUBJECT : BIOLOGY

TITLE : “MODEL OF HUMAN EYE”

ROLL NO. :

SCHOOL : SAINT PAULS SENIOR

SECONDRY SCHOOL,
BANSWARA, RAJASTHAN
327 001

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
 Everything in this world is resultant of many efforts. I
deem it to be my proud privilege to express my
acknowledgement to all those who helped me in various
stages of this project.

Firstly & primarily I express my deep sense of gratitude

& sincere indebtedness to Mrs. Vidhya Pathak (Head
Department of Biology) whose incessant efforts, great
interest, gifted guidance & devotion of time, not only
helped in carrying it out successfully in time.

As gratitude, I express my sincere thanks to FR.

(Principal) & FR. RANJAN (Manager), Saint Paul’s
Senior Secondary School who allowed me to every access
to the laboratory easily.

I am also very thankful to the laboratory assistant TARA

BAI who provided us with best available laboratory
facilities.
At last I want to thank my parents & well wishers whose
blessings & wishes come as lovely flower that blooms in
our life-bouquet & helped us to complete this project.

I am submitting this copy of my report as a theoretical

evidence of my work in the biology laboratory.

DATE:
PLACE: BANSWARA ST. PAUL’S SEN.
SEC SCHOOL
CERTIFICATE

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This is to certify that Mr. Ankit Kumar Dantla
of class XIIth has completed his Biology project entitled
“MODEL OF HUMAN EYE” under my guidance. The
project in my opinion is complete & fulfils all the
residential requirements, which is suitable for
presentation.

I appreciate his efforts & wish her for the bright future.

CONTENTS

S.No. PARTICULARS

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 1. Anatomy of eye

2. Embryology

3. Working of Eye

4. Defects, diseases and their corrective

measures

5. Conclusion

6. Bibliography

ANATOMY

Human eyes are spherical structure present in bony

sockets of the skull. Each eye is about 2.5 cm in diameter
& consists of tissue present in three concentric layers:

1. Outermost layer consisting of sclera & cornea.

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 2. Middle layer consisting of choroid, ciliary body &
iris.
3. Inner most layer consists of retina.

PARTS OF EYE & THEIR

FUNCTIONS

1. SCLERA: It is an opaque, fibro- elastic

capsule that forms the outermost covering. It
forms the posterior 5/6th part of the eye ball
where it forms the transparent cornea. The
anterior part of sclera is covered by mucous
membrane the conjuctiva. Sclera helps in
maintaining the shape of the eye ball & protects
its inner layers.

2. CORNEA: It is a thin transparent front part

of sclera. It allows light to pass into the eyes &
helps in forming real inverted images. It
consists of of five layers :
(a) Epithilium : A five cell layer which corresponds
to bony skin.
(b) Bowman’s Layer : It is an elastic fibre like
layer.
(c) Stromal Layer : It is a tough layer made up of
collagen. It is the thickest part of cornea. It
helps to keep the cornea free from infection
because of presence of antigens.
(d) Endothelium : It is an one cell thick layer which
keeps cornea transparent & maintains a balance
of water flow from the eye to the cornea. Injury

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 or disease to endothelium can cause permanent
damage to sight because once formed, the cells
cannot regenerate.
(e) Descement’s Membrane : It is an elastic
membrane & may be regarded as the functional
continuation forwards of the uveal tract.
3. FOVEA : It is the name given to the area that
is comprised of 3 distinct structures located in
the centre of the eye ball.
(a) Choroid : It is a pigmented layer present
beneath sclera & is an extremely vascular
membrane. The pigmentation prevents reflection
within eye & provide nutrition to retina. It is
supplied with sensory nerve fibres from
trigeminal as well as autonomic nerves
presumably of vasomotor function.
(b) Ciliary body : It consists of a ridged up area of
the uveal tract right at the front of the eye. Its
role is to alter the shape of lens through
movements of ciliary muscles, allowing us to
focus on near objects & also to make the
aqueous humour, the fluid which circulates in
the chamber between the lens & inner surface of
the cornea.
(c) Iris : It forms the back of the anterior chamber.
The pigment of this part of eye gives the its
colour i.e. blue, green, grey, black etc… It acts
like the aperture stop of a camera. It controls
the amount of light entering into the eye by
controlling the size of the pupil.

4. PUPIL: It refers to the opening in the iris.

Light enters the eye through the pupil. The
movement of iris controls the size of pupil. If too
strong light falls on it, the pupil grows smaller.

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 In dim light it grows larger. Excitement, fear &
the use of certain drugs also make pupil widen
or contract.

5. RETINA: The curved inside of the ball is

lined all around the back chamber with a light
sensitive ‘coat’ or layer, which is called retina.
It consists of two types of photo receptor cells
called rods & cones. Rods are sensitive to light
of low intensity & do not interpret colour, which
is ‘picked up’ by cones. These are also
responsible for clarity & are most plentiful at
the back of the eye. The area known as fovea or
Yellow spot (depressed area of retina). Here
lens also happens to focus its sharpest image &
this is where vision is best. It consists only cones
& rods are absent.

6. OPTIC NERVE: Each light sensitive cell in

the retina is connected by a nerve to the brain
where information about pattern, colours &
shapes is computed. All these nerve fibers
collect together at the back of the eye to form
one main cable known as the optic nerve which
leaves the eye ball from the back side. This area
of the retina from where the optic nerve leaves
the eye ball is called blind spot which does not
have any rods & cones & so is not light
sensitive. The optic nerve carries the electrical
impulses down tiny cables to the brain.

7. LENS : It is a transparent, elastic & a

biconvex mass of pecularly differentiated
epithelium which is held in position by the
suspensory ligaments. It is made up of non-

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 nucleated, elongated cells. The lens undergoes a
change in thickness & brings the adjustment for
focusing of light on retina.

Embryology
The central nervous system is developed from the
neural groove which invaginates to form the neural
tube running longitudinally down the dorsal surface of
the embryo.
At either site of the anterior portion of the structure a
thickening appears at an early stage (the optic plate)
which grows outward towards the surface to form the
primary optic vesicle. The primary optic vesicle
invaginates from below into the optic cup. The inner
layer of the cup forms the main structure of the retina.
Its outer layer remains as a single layer of pigmentary
epithelium. Between the two lies a narrow space

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representing the original optic vesicle and from its
anterior border develop parts of ciliary body and iris.
Mean time thickening continues to form lens plate,
which invaginates to form lens vesicle and then
separates to form lens. The neural ectoderm largely
secrets a clear jelly like substance called vitreous
humour. The mesoderm surrounding the optic cup
differentiate to form the coats of the eye and the orbital
structure, than between the lens and the surface
ectoderm becomes hollowed to form the anterior
chamber and the main structures of the cornea. In
surrounding region folds grow over in front of the
cornea, unite and separate again to form the lids.

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Working of eye
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The working of an eye is similar to that of a common
camera accept that the lens of human eye does not
move forward or backward but adjust the distance for
focus by undergoing changes in its shape
The light rays from any object fall on camera and enter
the through pupil. The intensity of the light or the
amount of light passing through pupil is governed by
the iris. Due to refrection the light rays converge as
they pass through the aqueous humour, lens, vitreous
humour and finally focus at retina forming an inverted
image of object.The lens makes the fine
adjustment to bring a sharp focus on retina. The ciliary
muscles relax and lens become thinner to focus the rays
of distant objects, The ciliary muscles contract and the
lens become thicker to focus the rays from nearer
objects.

CHANGE IN RETINA WHEN LIGHT RAYS

FALL ON IT

1. Light falls at the receptor cells on retina

↓
2. Breaking up of light sensitive pigments present
in rods and cones by specific wave length of
light.
↓
3. Stimulation of rods and cones and generation
of nerve impulse.
↓
4. Nerve impulse transmitted to bipolar nerve
cells.

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 ↓
5. Nerve impulse transmitted to ganglion cells.
↓
6. Nerve impulse transmitted to the axons of
ganglion cells which converge and form the
optic nerve.
↓
7. Nerve impulse transmitted to brain.
↓
8. Perception of light by the brain cells (in the
visual area of cerebellum.)

“VARIOUS EYE DEFECTS,

DISEASE & THEIR
CORRECTIVE MEASURES”
“DEFECTS”

1. ERRORS OF REFRACTION: In some eyes

retina is not situated in exactly the right place for
the images of distant objects to be clearly focused
upon it. It may be too far forward, or too far
back. In each case blurred images will be formed
upon the retina, & the vision may be impaired.
Such condition is called error of refraction. There
are 3 types of error of refraction :

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(a) Myopia: It is that dioptric condition of eye in
which parallel rays from distant objects get
focused in front of retina. It occurs due to the
following reasons :
Either the eye ball increases in length &
hereby affecting the posterior pole &
surrounding area.
Or there is a high curvature of the lens (more
convex)

Symptoms:
1. Indistinct distant vision, discomfort after near
work, black spots may be seen floating before
them & sometimes flashes of light are noticed
2. Eyes become prominent pupils are large &
anterior chamber appears deeper than normal.

Treatment:
1. Wearing suitable correcting spectacles i.e.
biconcave lenses & attention to the hygiene of
the eye.

(b)Hypermetropia : It is that dioptric condition of

the eye in which parallel rays from distant objects
get focused beyond retina. It occurs due to the
following reasons :
 Either the eye ball is smaller than
normal.
 Or there is low convexity of the lens.

Symptoms:
1. Are noticed chiefly after close work, especially
in the evening by artificial illumination.

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 2. The eyes ache & burn, they may feel dry so
that blinking movements are more frequent
than usual.It may also leads to headache.

Treatment:
1. Wearing suitable correcting spectacles i.e
biconvex lenses.

Astigamatism : It is that condition of refraction in

which a point of light cannot be made to produce a
Punctate image upon the retina by any spherical
correcting lens. Regular astigmatiosm is usually a
congenital defect due in most part to differences in
the curvature of the cornea in different meridians.

Syptoms :
(i) Regular astigmatism may be transmatic
followed a wound, frequently surgical, in
the cornea, scleral margin since the
contraction of the scar causes flattening of
the cornea in the meridian at right angle to
the wond.
(ii) It also causes lowering of visual acuity.

Treatment:
(i) Cylindrical lenses are the common
treatment for astigmatism.
Diseases

CONJUCTIVITIS
It is diseases caused by the infection of
microorganism such as bacteria and viruses. The
conjuctival sac is practically never free from
organism but owing to its relatively low
temperature, evaporation of lacrimal fluid and

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moderate blood supply, bacteria do not readily
propagate themselves.
Symptoms:
1. Conjuctivitis is associated with a mucous
discharge which gums the lid together,
particularly in morning because of the
accumulation during the night. It is also termed
as “cold in the eye”.
2. In the more severe cases the whole conjunctiva is
a fiery red, all the cunjunctival vessels are
congested.
Treatment:
1. Frequent washing out of the conjuctival sac with
a suitable lotion
2. Control of the infection by appropriate drugs.
Cataract
Any opacity in the lens or its capsule whether
developmental or acquired is called cataract.
Reasons:
1. malnutrition i.e. lack of vitamin D
2. Infection of viruses
3. Deficient oxygenation owing to placenta
haemorrhage
Symptoms:
1. Appearance of tiny blue dots
2. Due to lack of vitamin D rickets are commonly
found in children.
3. eroded appearance with transverse lins of
incisors and canines
Treatment:
1. Surgical removal of lens and then either
implantation of artificial lens or use of spectacles
with convex lens.
2. Cured by drugs if detected in time.

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GLAUCOMA
It is a sympatonic condition, not a disease. It may be
due to an increase in the formation of aqueous
humour, a difficulty in its episcleral veins thus
leading to blindness.
Treatment:
1. As soon as it is diagnosed mitotic treatment
should be instituted.
2. Several operations may be employed to control
the tension by the establishment of a filtering scar
which is able to make the humour to drain into
sub-conjuctival tissue where it is absorbed.

Conclusion
An animal is able to maintain contact with his
surrounding with the help of his sense organs.
The sense organs are infect specialized areas where
sensory endings of nerves are located. With the help
of impulses from them which travel through the
nerves an organism is able to know what is
happening around and permit to adjust to the
surrounding accordingly.
Thus eyes are the main organs of vision in our body
and so may also be called as PHOTORECEPTORS.

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 Bibliography

1. A text book of anatomy by A. C. Dutta.

2. Basic secondary biology for class XIIth by S.

C. Maheshwari.

3. A text book for biology by Sarita Agrawal.

4. Parsons diseases of eye by Sir Stewart

Dukeelder.

5. Biology for class XIIth by Nitin Sen.

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