CHAPTER 4: Curriculum Implementation

CHAPTER LEARNING OUTCOMES

When you complete this chapter will be able to:
 Explain what is curriculum implementation
 Describe Lewin’s change model
 Differentiate between types of curriculum change
 Explain why people resist change
 List the role and responsibilities of people involved in the
implementation process

OVERVIEW

Introduction Roles and responsibilities

What is implementation?  Teachers
Curriculum implementation  Students
as a change process  Principals
Types of curriculum  Community
change  Education Ministry
Resistance to Change Officials
Why people resist change? Summary
 “Homework Must Be More Fun and Meaningful’

THE Education Ministry is to Homework that is interesting to pupils

regulate homework assignment of school
pupils to make it more interesting.
Homework is clearly one key area in
which things can and should improve in
the interests of all concerned. Homework
should have more quality than quantity.
It needs a finer focus with less bulk, and
in the process become more interesting
to give students an added incentive to
studying harder. Young people have
energy, imagination and a natural
curiosity that can help them to learn if
properly chanelled. Otherwise,
homework can become a hindrance to
the learning process.
Teachers should be guides to
learning rather than be fountains of
infinite knowledge. They should present
material in intellectually stimulating
ways, without spoon-feeding. Pupils
need to know that learning is part of their
own life experience, not something
separate and removed from it. Teachers
should therefore avoid dishing out
homework mechanically as routine
chores, which would make studies boring
and brain-deadening.
would not only make their learning more
meaningful and productive, but also
facilitate teaching. When schoolchildren are
better motivated in their studies, teachers
also find their task easier. Students learn
better and faster when their innate
inquisitiveness is fired with more
participatory observation and enquiry of the
world about them. Good teachers can make
this vital difference. Pupils must constantly
be encouraged to do more than answer set
questions, as it is essential to think their
way to unrehearsed answers. True learning
is more that just “spotting exam questions”.
It is important for pupils to experience a
sense of achievement in all aspects of
study, which would give them a feel of their
own development and growth. A more
enlightened approach to learning such as
this may also apply to regular class work
besides homework.

[source: adapted from The Sunday Star, 13 February, 2005]

Introduction

In Chapter 3, we looked at curriculum design. After having designed the

curriculum, the next step would be to implement
[Source:the plan.
New In Times,
Straits the school system,
February 1, the
2005]
final destination of any curriculum will be the classroom involving students, teachers,
school administrators and the community. Implementing the curriculum is the most
crucial and perhaps the most difficult phase of the curriculum development process.
People responsible for implementing a new curriculum often hear many comments and
concerns such as:

“Teachers are already overloaded – how are they going to

implement the new ideas”
“ Parents and education officers are only interested in a high pass
rate in examinations – how are schools to incorporate suggested
changes ”
 These are real concerns and there is never enough
time. Even worse when persons implementing the
curriculum are not clear as to what is expected and
what are their roles. How often have we heard
people say that the plan was good but was poorly
implemented or poorly executed. Alternatively, if a
curriculum plan is not implemented and remains on
the shelf then all earlier efforts will come to naught
or zero. A curriculum with optimal designs for
students must get delivered; it must be implemented
in the classroom if it is to make any impact on student learning. Good plans when they
reach the classroom do not get implemented due to a lack of planning and preparation.
In some curriculum development projects, implementation is not been given due
consideration; not realising that innovations need careful planning and monitoring. We
hear of teachers not being properly trained and are required to implement the changes in
their classroom within a short period of time.

ACTIVITY

Read the newspaper report at the beginning of the chapter and answer the
following questions
1. What are some suggestions proposed for making homework fun and
meaningful?
2. Do you agree with the statement that teachers should not ‘spoon-feed’ but
rather be ‘guides to learning’ ? Why?
3. Give other suggestions for making homework meaningful and fun.

What is Curriculum Implementation?

Implementation is an interaction process between those who have created the

programme and those who are charged to deliver it (Ornstein and Hunkins, 1998). It
involves altering the knowledge, actions and attitudes of people. It requires educators to
shift from the current programme to the new or modified programme. Implementation is
a process of professional development and growth. Ongoing interactions, positive
feedback and assistance are essential. Implementation is a process of clarification
whereby individuals and groups come to understand and practice a change in attitudes
and behaviours; this often involves using new resources. Any change requires effort and
produces a certain amount of anxiety and to minimize these, it is useful to organise
implementation into manageable events and to set achievable goals. Successful
implementation requires a supportive atmosphere in which there is trust and open
communication between educators, and where risk-taking is encouraged. The extent to
which curriculum leaders are able to achieve such behaviour changes will depend on
how well the implementation process is planned.
 Even though large sums of money have been spent on implementing new
curriculum, several of these efforts have failed. According to Sarason (1990), the main
reason for the failure is the lack of understanding of the culture of the school by both
experts outside the school system and educators in the system. Successful
implementation of curriculum requires understanding the power relationships, the
traditions, the roles and responsibilities of individuals in the school system.
Implementors (whether they be teachers, principals, district education officers) should
be well-versed with the contents of the curriculum. They must be clear of the purpose,
the nature, and the real and potential benefits of the innovation.
As stated by Fullan and Pomfret (1977); “effective implementation of
innovations requires time, personal interaction and contacts, in-service training and
other forms of people-based support” (p.391). Curriculum implementation requires
winning people over and it takes time. Teachers need to feel appreciated and their
efforts recognised. Some may argue that they should be given financial rewards but
there is evidence to suggest that external motivation contributes minimally to the
venture. Individuals contribute their best talents when they are internally motivated and
derive a good feeling from being involved.

Curriculum Implementation as a Change Process

Implementation is the carrying out of something or the practical application of a

method, procedure or desired purpose. Loucks and Lieberman (1983) define curriculum
implementation as the trying out of a new practice and what that practice looks like
when actually is used in a school system. For example, integrating technology across the
curriculum. To what extent what was intended in the curriculum plan is actually being
done in schools or more specifically in the classroom. Your aim for developing a
curriculum is to make a difference in the school, society and to a larger extent the
nation. To realise the planned changes, the curriculum has to be implemented. Simply,
put, curriculum implementation is bringing about change and hopefully improvement.
How do you bring about change? How do you know your students have
changed? Is the curriculum causing the change? Before you can bring about change, you
need to know what is change and the types of change. You may say what’s the big deal?
We all know what is change! It could be a change in what you do in your job. It could
be a change in government policy. But what is change in relation to curriculum?
Basically, change is doing something differently. Change results from new knowledge.
However, the presence of new knowledge is not sufficient for change. People generally
are reluctant to change because they are comfortable with what they are currently doing.
So, to change, they must recognise a need for change. People are more likely to
recognise the need for change if they understand change and how it works. Don’t you
agree?
Kurt Lewin (1951), considered to be the father of change theory suggested a
model explaining change (see Figure 4.1). According to him, all persons are faced with
two competing forces: those forces driving you to do something and change, and those
forces restraining or preventing you from doing something and change. When these two
forces (driving and restraining) are equal, the status quo is maintained. In other words,
there is no effort towards change and so you do the same thing you did before.
However, at times the driving forces begin to overpower the restraining forces and
when this happens, change is initiated. As long as the driving forces are more powerful
than the restraining forces, change will continue. But, when the restraining forces get
stronger, change will slow down.
Lewin emphasised that to bring about change, it is better to reduce the power of
the restraining forces rather than increasing the driving forces. This has been termed as
unfreezing whereby the power of the restraining forces are decreased to stimulate the
driving forces. For example, if there is fear among teachers that they would not have the
know-how to implement the new curriculum, it is best that they be trained before
implementing the new ideas.

Force Field Model

Driving Forces Restraining Forces

a) Government intervention a) Fear of the unknown

b) Society’s values b) Threats to power
c) Technological changes c) Obsolete
knowledge/skills
d) Knowledge explosion d) Traditional values
e) Administrative processes e) Limited resources

Figure 4.1 Force Field Model (Kurt Lewin, 1951)

Types of Curriculum Change

If you are responsible for implementing curriculum, it is important that you

understand the nature of change. Understanding the change process can be a challenging
and exciting process. If you do not comprehend the complexities of change you are
likely to introduce ideas and actions that may result in confusion and discord within the
school or district. Curriculum change is a complex and difficult process and requires
careful planning, adequate time, funding, support and opportunities for teacher
involvement. McNeil (1990) categorised curriculum change as follows:
 Substitution: One element may be substituted for another already present. For
example, the substituting of a new textbook for an old one.
 Alteration: This occurs when a change is introduced into existing material in the
hope that it will appear minor and thus be readily adopted. For example,
introducing of new content such road safety in the primary school curriculum;
use of new materials such as the graphing calculator in mathematics teaching.
 Perturbations: These are changes that are disruptive but teachers adjust the them
within a fairly short time. For example, the assistant principal changes the
timetable or schedule to allow for longer teaching time.
  Restructuring: These are changes that lead to a modification of the whole school
system. For example, the introduction of an integrated curriculum requiring team
teaching, or involving the local community in deciding what is to be taught.
 Value Orientation: These are shifts in the fundamental value orientations of
school personnel. For example, if the new teachers who join the school place
more emphasis on personal growth of students than academic performance, then
the value orientations or fundamental philosophies of the school changes.

It should be realised that a particular curriculum change may not exactly fit
according to the five categories given. But, the categories are general enough to help
you plan change and arrange resources to bring about the change. However, you should
be aware that change is not synonymous with improvement and you might decide that
change should not be undertaken.

SELF-TEST
3) What are the five types of curriculum change listed by
McNeil. Give examples of each category other than those
given in the text.
4) Identify other categories of curriculum change which you have
come across but does not fit into those given above.

Resistance to Change

As mentioned earlier, bringing about change is not an easy task. There are many
barriers to the successful implementation of a curriculum. If you are given the job of
implementing a curriculum, whether it be in the school system, college, university or
training center, you will encounter people resisting change. Keep things as they are!.
Many people think that it is easier to keep things as they are. We often hear people say,
“If it is not broken, why fix it”. People are happy with the current situation in their
institution and feel that the change suggested will not meet the objectives of the school,
college or training centre. The status quo tends to be maintained when the persons
introducing change are themselves not clear as to the intent and what is required of the
new programme. To make matters worse, the implementation of the programme is
poorly planned.
Teachers who are to implement the curriculum frequently view change as
meaning more work. An addition to their already overloaded schedule and there is no
extra money or reward for the extra work they have to put in. Also, they view new
curriculum programmes will require them to learn new teaching skills and competencies
which will mean attending courses and seminars. It has also been found that teachers or
practitioners tend to reject pedagogical practices or teaching methods that challenge
what they are currently doing. They are reluctant to change or modify their current
instructional strategies and understandings of classroom practice.
 Why People Resist Change?

Let us examine in more detail why people resist change. By knowing why
people resist change, it may be possible to plan more effective strategies to overcome
resistance and improve receptivity to change. Persons charged with the implementation
of a curriculum must understand how people react to change and how to encourage them
to be receptive to change. Fundamentally, there are seven reasons why people resist
change (Harvey, 1990; Woldring, 1999; Lippitt, 1966).

a) People resist because they do not understand – they simply do not follow
what is being introduced. They do not understand where they are going. They
are not clear as to what is required of them.
Overcome:
The key is ‘communication’. You have to explain to them “Why”. You have to
answer the Why, What, When, How and Where questions. Remember the
effectiveness of a communication is not the ‘message sent’ but of the ‘message
received’
b) People resist because of lack of ownership – Individuals will not accept change
if they consider it coming from outside their institution. Unfortunately, most
curriculum reform efforts are initiated from the outside whether it be at the
national, state or district level.
Overcome:
You have to convince teachers that even though it comes from the outside, their
view and opinions have been considered at the planning and design stages of
curriculum development. You will have to involve teachers in exploring the
relevance of the new curriculum and give them the freedom to explore the new
skills needed for utilizing or implementing the curriculum and to learn together
with their colleagues. This will get them to feel that they are an important part of
the curriculum implementation process.

c) People resist if they do not have competencies to do what they have to do in

the new situation – It is natural for persons to resist if they do not have the
knowledge and skills to cope the changes. Nobody wants to be told that they are
incompetent and feel insecure. There is the likelihood that the implementation of
the new curriculum has been rushed and so training period is greatly reduced and
teachers are not adequately equipped which may be worsened with budget
constraints.
Overcome: Adequate time and resources have to be set aside for the training
of teachers and other personnel directly involved in implementing the new
curriculum.

d) People resist if there is a lack of incentives or benefits – If teachers are

unconvinced that the new programme will make things better for students (in
terms of learning) or themselves (such as greater recognition, respect or reward),
they are likely to resist the suggested change.
Overcome: Make sure that teachers who are actively involved in
Curriculum change are rewarded. The reward need not necessarily be
financial, but their efforts need to be given due recognition.
e) People resist if they do not have the time to engage with the change – they
cannot both change and handle their current responsibilities. Focusing their
energy on the change activity puts them at risk in not being able to carry out
their current responsibilities.
Overcome: Lighten their workloads so they can participate in the change. Re-
prioritise their work so that they are not caught in the dilemma. Do not expect
people to have the energy to change when this means failing on the tasks for
which they are held responsible.

SELF-TEST
1) Why do people resist change?
2) Suggest other reasons why people resist change.
 ACTIVITY

Curriculum Reform and Implementation in Indonesia

In 1994, the Indonesian government introduced curriculum reform which

consisted of a national curriculum (80%) and flexibility given to the provinces in
adjusting the curriculum to local needs. The Local Content Curriculum (LCC) was
aimed at the local situation and context while the national curriculum focused on
national development. The Curriculum Development Center (CDC) transferred 20% of
its authority to each provincial level (LCC).

National Curriculum (80%) Local Content Curriculum (20%)

Pancasila and civic education Agriculture
Religion (Islam, Christianity, Catholicism, Environmental education
Hinduism, Buddhism) Computer and information
Indonesian language Local culture (dance, local language,
Reading and writing traditional games, etc
Mathematics English
Science & technology
Geography
National and World history

Teachers, principals and supervisors were given autonomy to redesign the

curriculum to more closely match students’ needs and interests. However, in reality
not all teachers took advantage of the opportunity. Teachers have not responded by
modifying the curriculum or experimenting with new instructional
techniques. Moreover, parents and interested groups in the locality have not been
invited to participate in the planning or management of the LCC program. According
to LCC policy, schools are supposed to reorganise the curriculum into a new set of
subjects. In some cases teachers have made connections between the subject matter
they disseminate to the world outside, but the basic curricular foundations in junior
secondary school has remained essentially the same as the previous curriculum.
The following are some limitations and obstacles found in the LCC
implementation: lack of communication between the provincial and local levels, the
lack of training, teachers’ attitudes toward the LCC, lack of resources, and lack of
funding allocation. First, in the process of curriculum decentralization some decisions
made at the provincial level tend to not meet each district’s needs and conditions.
Second, was a lack of teachers to teach the LCC. In the LCC implemented in the
provinces of Jambi, Lampung, Maluku Island, South Sulawesi, and East Java. Most of
the local content subjects were taught by teachers who do not have any specific skills
and experience, such as teaching specific traditional culture and local languages.
Third teachers’ attitudes toward the LCC implementation. Teachers did not
respond to the innovation because they do not have enough background knowledge or
skills for its implementation. In fact, they did not have necessary support from the
government and provincial levels to develop their knowledge and skills. While it is
easy for the government to establish policies, conditions at the school level are
completely different. Most teachers tended to concentrate on the national
curriculum. Finally, there was lack of funds to develop the LCC which required regular
meetings at the school/district level for LCC subject development. This caused a lack
of participation in LCC implementation.

[source: Implementing the curriculum in Indonesia]

1) What are some of the reasons given for poor implementation of the local
curriculum content (LCC)?
2) To what extent is such flexibility is given to teachers in your country?
 People Involved in Curriculum Implementation

Implementing a curriculum requires the involvement of different people. Each is

a ‘key player’ in the change process. Without the coordinated involvement of these
individuals the implementation of the curriculum programme will encounter many
problems. Among the key players identified are: teachers, students,
principals/headmasters, assistant principals, district education officers, state education
officers, curriculum developers, academics, parents, interested political officials and lay
citizens. In a centralized system, the national curriculum is developed at the national
level and passed on to the individual districts and schools to be implemented.

Teachers
Without doubt, the most important person in the curriculum implementation
process is the teacher. With their knowledge, experience and competencies, teachers
are central to any curriculum improvement effort. Regardless of which philosophical
belief the education system is based on, there is no denying that teachers influence
students’ learning. Better teachers foster better learning. Teachers are most
knowledgeable about the practice of teaching and are responsible for introducing the
curriculum in the classroom.
The key to getting teachers committed to an innovation is to enhance their
knowledge of the programme. This means teachers will need be training and workshops
have to be organised for professional development. Unfortunately, in any curriculum
implementation process not all teachers will have the benefit of such exposure. There
are just too many teachers and insufficient funds to go around. The most common
approach is to have one-day workshops given by experts with the lecture method being
the dominant pedagogical strategy. To get teachers to implement a new curriculum
requires a paradigm shift. Among the many extrinsic factors identified that may impede
curriculum change are resource adequacy, time, school ethos and professional support.
The intrinsic factors are; professional knowledge, professional adequacy and
professional interest and motivation. (see Table 4.1).
Hence, professional development of teachers is as an important factor
contributing to the success of curriculum implementation. To what extent have teacher
education programmes required prospective teachers to study curriculum development?
Some view teachers as technicians and as such do not include curriculum development
in their teacher education programmes. [Did you study curriculum development in your
training as a teacher?] Certainly an adequate education of teachers must include
curriculum development (both the theory and the work of curriculum development) if
teaching is to be a profession and if educational opportunities for learners are really to
be improved.
 Factors Description
Adequacy of equipment, facilities and general
Adequacy of resources resources required of implementing the new
curriculum

Time availability for preparing and delivering the

Time requirements of the new curriculum. e.g. teachers
have enough time to develop their own
understanding of the subject they are required to
teach.

Overall school beliefs towards the new

curriculum. Status of the curriculum as viewed by
School ethos staff, administrators and community. E.g. school
administration recognises the importance of the
subject in the overall school curriculum.

Support available for teachers from both in school

Professional support and external sources. e.g. opportunities to receive
ongoing curriculum professional support

Teachers’ own ability and competence to teach the

Professional adequacy curriculum. i.e. confident to teach

Knowledge and understandings teachers possess

Professional knowledge towards the new curriculum. e.g. have alternative
ways of teaching to foster student learning

Attitudes and interest of teachers towards the new

Professional attitude and curriculum and the teaching of the new
interest curriculum.
e.g. teachers want to teach the subject

Table 4.1 Factors influencing the implementation of a curriculum in

schools

[source: adapted from the Science Curriculum Implementation

Questionnaire (SCIQ).
http://home.cc.umanitoba.ca/~lewthwai/introSCIQ.html]
 ACTIVITY

According to Friendenberg (1965), people who go into teaching tend to be conformist in

nature and reluctant to innovate. These people have succeeded in the school system as it
has existed. They have learned to play it safe and to keep a low profile in a bureaucratic
system run by administrators who do not like to create waves. They have found success
and fulfillment as students and now as teachers in this system, and for this reason many
see no reason to change it.

[source: Edgar Friendenberg, Coming of Age in America. New York: Random House]

1) To what extent do you agree with Friedenberg’s views about teachers

and curriculum change?
2) Is this characteristic of other professions?

Students
There is a tendency among curriculum implementers to ignore the role of
students as agents of change. Increasingly, there is the realisation that even primary
school children can contribute to meaningful change.

Principals
Principals are key to the success of the implementation process in a school. They
require in-depth knowledge of the planned change and of the implementation process.
The must be committed to the change and be able to employ a variety of leadership
strategies to meet the needs of teachers. These strategies might include: being accessible
and openly willing to communicate with others involves in the process, building on the
strengths available in the staff, providing professional development opportunities for
staff, providing outside expertise when required, being willing to take risks; and being
positive about the planned change and using this optimism to motivate others.
 ACTIVITY
England’ National Curriculum for Secondary Schools

The law requires that all maintained schools provide for all pupils a balanced
and broadly based curriculum which provides for all pupils to learn and achieve;
promotes students’ spiritual, moral, cultural, mental and physical development;
prepares students for the opportunities, responsibilities and experiences of adult life.
The following subjects must be taught:
 English
 Mathematics
 Science
 Design and Technology
 Information and Communication
Technology
 History

Other statutory requirements are: Religious Education, Sex and Relationship

Education, and, Careers Education (from Year 9). The core subjects: English,
mathematics and science will be given priority to ensure that they are secure. Beyond
this, each school can decide which subject to give more time to and, within a subject,
which aspects or skills to emphasise. The priority or emphasis might apply across
subjects, to particular year groups, to groups of pupils or to individuals.
For example,
 a school with particular strengths in its ICT and language departments offers
Spanish as a second foreign language using ICT facilities for weekly video-
conference sessions with students in a partner school in Spain.
 a school with substantial low-achieving students emphasises literacy across the
curriculum. Teachers in every plan into their schemes of work where and how
they will teach literacy objectives in their subject.
 In an area of high-technology industries such as computing and
pharmaceuticals, a school gives priority to mathematics and science to help its
students to make the most of local job opportunities. Scientists from local
companies visit the school as part of the science and engineering ambassadors
scheme, and year 9 students undertake project work to achieve creativity in
science and technology (CREST) awards.

[Source: Key Stage 3 National Strategy: Designing the Key Stage 3 Curriculum, Department for
Education and Skills. England.]

1. To what extent are the subjects taught in England’s secondary school

similar or different from the subjects taught in your school system?

2. Do you agree or disagree with the flexibility given to schools to design

the curriculum to meet local needs?
 Implementing Curriculum in the Classroom

The final destination of any curriculum is the classroom. As we enter

the classroom, decision making becomes the responsibility of the teacher. Up
to this point curriculum implementation was discussed at the programme level
and decision making was of a programmatic nature (though we did discuss
briefly the role of the teacher). Now classroom teachers will take over and
make decisions of a methodological nature. They will be answering question
like:
 What objectives are to be accomplished as a result of instruction?
 What topics or content will I have to cover?
 What methods or techniques should I use for directing learning?
 How do I evaluate instruction?

LEARNING CONTENT
GOALS

LEARNING ASSESSMENT
EXPERIENCES TASKS

Teaching Learning
Methods Activities

Figure 4.2 An example of an instructional model

Implementing instruction includes specifying instructional or learning

goals, selecting content, selecting learning experiences and choosing
techniques or tasks to evaluate instruction (see Figure 4.2). Where, then, and
how does the teacher begin to plan for instruction? Let’s look three extreme
approaches of planning for instruction.
 Teacher X takes the textbook and divides the number of chapters by
the number of weeks in the school year. For example, one chapter may
be taught over two or three lessons. The sequence and subheadings of
the respective chapter guides the presentation of content. He or she
may prepare some notes for students, ask some questions during class
(which may come from the textbook) and may give group assignments
to clarify points in the chapter or chapters.
 Teacher Y selects a topic for study for the week or over a number of
lessons using all kinds of resources related to the topic. The resources
may include the textbook, reference books, websites, magazines, etc.
A problem-solving approach is adopted where students look through
various sources of information to solve a problem.
 Teacher Z come to class without knowing what he or she will cover. A
theme or issues is written on the blackboard and students are expected
to contribute their understanding and interpretation about the theme or
issue. While some may argue that this is spontaneity, others, less kind,
might term it non-planning.

These three approaches may be extreme, but there are some teachers
who fall into one of these categories. These teachers may not follow the
curriculum or follow the plan in general terms. All three approaches may
not specify the instructional objective or learning outcomes students are
expected to accomplish. In most cases, teachers adopt an eclectic
approach, i.e. they combine one or more methods.
Instructional objectives or learning outcomes are statements indicating
what you want students to know, to do and to value after having
completed a lesson. Why instructional objectives? Instructional objectives:
 make it clear to teachers what changes they want student to
achieve
 help in choosing the appropriate learning experiences to achieve
the changes or learning desired
 inform students of what is expected of them
 indicate what will be important in assessing the lesson
 Key Terms

- Curriculum implementation - Curriculum implementation

- Curriculum change in the classroom
- Force field model
- Resistance to change

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:

1. “Curriculum implementation has become a major concern in our educational

system; resulting partially from the expenditure of millions of dollars and partially
from the realisation that relatively few ideas make it to the classroom”
(Susan Loucks and Ann Lieberman, 1983, p. 126).
(a) List the kinds of activities involved in the implementation of a
curriculum that will require vast financial expenditure?
(b) Based on your own experience, why “few ideas make it to the
classroom”?

2. “In the last 100 years, only two institutions have not changed very much;
namely, religious institutions and the school”.
a) To what extent do you agree with the statement regarding schools?”.
b) Why do you think schools have been slow to change?
 READINGS

a) Alistair, R. (200). Curriculum: Construction and Critique. London: Falmer

Press.
Chapter 1: What is the curriculum? [available at eBrary].
b) Woods, R.N. (1989). Introduction to philosophy of education. London:
Routledge.
Chapter 3: Curriculum theory [available at eBrary]

a) Ornstein, A. and Hunkins, F. Curriculum: Foundations, principle and

issues.
(1998). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Chapter 10: Curriculum
implementation.
b) Sowell, E. (2000). Curriculum: An integrative introduction. Upper Saddle
River,
NJ: Prentice-Hall. Chapter 1: Overview of curriculum processes and
products.

READINGS (Internet Resources)

a) Bennie, K. & Newstead, K. (2004) Obstacles to implementing a new

curriculum.
http://academic.sun.ac.za/mathed/MALATI/Files/Statistics99.pdf

b) Keys, P. (2000). Developing a good science syllabus for an optimistic

future: A
classroom teacher’s perspective.
http://www.aare.edu.au/00pap/key00212.htm