Basic Electronics

Chapter 2
Lineal Circuit Analysis Theorems
Basic Electronics Lineal Circuit Analysis Theorems

Table of Contents

2. Lineal circuit analysis theorems. ................................................................................................................................ 3

2.1 Kirchhoff's Laws. ................................................................................................................................................... 3
2.1.1 Law of tension in loops. ................................................................................................................................ 3
2.1.2 Law of currents at junctions.......................................................................................................................... 5
2.2 Superposition's Theorem. ..................................................................................................................................... 8
2.3 Thévenin’s Theorem ............................................................................................................................................. 9
2.4 Norton’s Theorem ..............................................................................................................................................11

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Basic Electronics Lineal Circuit Analysis Theorems

2. Lineal circuit analysis theorems.

Here we will learn standard analysis techniques that will be useful while facing complex circuit layouts.

2.1 Kirchhoff's Laws.

G. R. Kirchhoff (1824-1887) established the two basic laws of circuit analysis:

➢ The law of tensions in loops.

➢ The law of the currents at junctions.

2.1.1 Law of tension in loops.

We understand by loop any closed path of a circuit.
Based on this definition, and based on the principle of energy conservation, Kirchhoff elaborated the
first law that bears his name and according to which the sum (considering the sign) of the potential
differences found in the route of any complete loop of a circuit is zero.

➢ The sum of all the voltages around a loop is equal to zero.

The application of this law will allow us to easily find the current that circulates for each of the
components of the circuit.
For example, on the following circuit we can define three loops, although for analysis purposes, we
will use only two of them.

The steps to follow in order to effectively apply the law of tensions to the loops, are:

1. First, the direction of the currents of each mesh (𝐼1 , 𝐼2 and 𝐼3 ) is defined (arbitrarily).

2. We choose from all the defined meshes, only the necessary ones that provide all the elements to
have at least one current (𝐼1 and 𝐼2 ). In our case the mesh called 𝐼3 does not add data for the
analysis (linear dependent equation).

3. Once the direction of the currents of the two loops has been defined, we draw the polarity of all
potential differences in the 𝐼1 loop (we put the positive sign on the component’s terminal where
the current enters).
Next, we take a point of the loop (for example the negative pole of the 𝑉1 source) and, following
the direction indicated by the current, we can say that the potential increases first in a value equal
to 𝑉1, later, and because of the resistors, the potential decreases 𝑉𝑅1 volts first and 𝑉𝑅2 after.
Therefore, we take a complete turn on the loop by adding the potential differences that have the
same polarity direction, and we subtract those that have the opposite direction.

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Basic Electronics Lineal Circuit Analysis Theorems

Transferring all this to mathematical language and applying the law of Kirchhoff appears this first
equation:

V 1 - V R1 - V R2 = 0

The calculation of the voltages 𝑉𝑅1 and 𝑉𝑅2 is based on Ohm’s law:

V R1 = I 1 R1
V R2 = ( I 1 - I 2 ) R 2

Where to evaluate 𝑉𝑅2 we have considered the polarity defined on 𝑅2 due to 𝐼1 , and that the
current that passes through this resistance is the difference between 𝐼1 and 𝐼2 .

4. Indicate the polarity of all potential differences in the second loop generated by the current 𝐼2 ,
and repeat the steps of point 2.
- V 'R2 - V 2 - V R3 = 0

It should be noted that the voltage on resistor 2 now has the polarity inverted from the previous
calculation (VR2 = -V'R2). So:

𝑉1 − 𝐼1 × 𝑅1 − (𝐼1 − 𝐼2 ) × 𝑅2 = 0

−𝑉2 − 𝐼2 × 𝑅3 − (𝐼2 − 𝐼1 ) × 𝑅2 = 0

𝑉1 − 𝐼1 × 𝑅1 − 𝐼1 × 𝑅2 + 𝐼2 × 𝑅2 = 0

−𝑉2 − 𝐼2 × 𝑅3 − 𝐼2 × 𝑅2 + 𝐼1 × 𝑅2 = 0

−(𝑅1 + 𝑅2 ) × 𝑰𝟏 + 𝑅2 × 𝑰𝟐 = −𝑉1

+𝑅2 × 𝑰𝟏 − (𝑅2 + 𝑅3 ) × 𝑰𝟐 = 𝑉2

Finally, we get a linear equations system with 2 equations and 2 unknown variables, therefore, you
can choose one of the already known methods to solve it: Substitution, Elimination, or algebraic
methods like Kramer.

Exercise 2.3.
Exercise 2.4.
Exercise 2.5.
Exercise 2.6.
Exercise 2.1 solved by 1rst law of Kirchhoff.
Exercise 2.2 solved by 1rst law of Kirchhoff.

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Basic Electronics Lineal Circuit Analysis Theorems

2.1.2 Law of currents at junctions.

A point on the circuit where more than two conductors converge is defined as a node or junction.
This second law of Kirchhoff says that the sum of the currents that enter in a node, is equal to the
sum of the currents that emerge from it.

➢ The current entering at any junction, is equal to the current leaving that junction.

If Kirchhoff’s first law served us to determine the currents that circulate around the circuit loop,
the second one will be of great help when calculating the potentials of each node on the circuit.

Observing the next Figure and following the strict definition of node, one can deduce that the
circuit has 4 nodes: (A, B, C and D). For the purpose, however, of tensions, we will all agree that the
C and D nodes have the same value (they are joined by a conductor) and therefore, we can
consider them as a single node (C ').

Now, we will mention the points that must be followed in order to correctly apply the law of the
currents to the nodes, and thus finding the tensions in the nodes A, B and C ':

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Basic Electronics Lineal Circuit Analysis Theorems

1. The first thing we will do is to decide the ground point, that is, the point of our circuit where we
assign the zero-potential value. The election of this point is arbitrary. In electrical circuits, we will
often choose the negative pole of the battery as a point of ground. Therefore, we will say that the
value of the potential in the node C '(𝑉𝐶ˈ) is zero.

2. To find the potentials in the A and B nodes, we now define the different currents that come into
these nodes and apply the second law of Kirchhoff:

I1+ I2 + I3= 0

I4 + I5 + I6 = 0

3. The calculation of currents can be expressed based on the potentials defined in the circuit as
follows:

I1 can be found according to Ohm's law as the quotient between the difference of potential
between the terminals of the resistance R1, and the value of this resistance:

( V -V A )
I1=
R1

We can find I2 with the same reasoning but considering that VC '= 0.

( V C - V A ) VA
I2= =-
R2 R2

In order to calculate the current that enters the node A from the B node, we have to define the
difference of potential, between the terminals of R3, in the direction that determines the current
I3, that is, considering that the potential falls into the direction of B towards A.

( V B -V A )
I3=
R3

On the other hand, to calculate the current I4, we must consider that in the resistance R3 the
potential drops on the direction that goes from A to B. It is obvious that I4 = - I3:

( V A -V B )
I4=
R3

The current I5 is fixed by the current source and its value, therefore, is I.
The current I6 can be found analogously to I2.

( V C - V B ) VB
I6 = =-
R4 R4

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Basic Electronics Lineal Circuit Analysis Theorems

Therefore, we will finally obtain:

 ( V -V A ) - V A ( V B -V A )
 + + =0
 R 1 R 2 R 3


 ( V A -V B ) - VB
 +I+ =0
 R3 R4

  1 1 1   1  V
 V A  + +  - V B   =
  R 1 R 2 R 3   R 3  R1



 - V A  1  + V B  1 + 1  = I
    
 R3   R3 R4 

Again, we are faced with a system of two equations and with two variables: 𝑉𝐴 and 𝑉𝐵 .

Exercise 2.9.
Exercise 2.10.
Exercise 2.1 solved by the 2nd law of Kirchhoff.
Exercise 2.2 solved by the 2nd law of Kirchhoff.
Control Point 2016/17 Exercise 4 solved by the 2nd law of Kirchhoff.

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Basic Electronics Lineal Circuit Analysis Theorems

2.2 Superposition's Theorem.

The application of this theorem is very useful when we are in front of circuits with more than one power
source. Its definition says that “The effects of two or more sources can be evaluated as the sum of the
individual effects of each source”.
Examine the following circuit a).

We are interested in calculating the value of the potential difference in R2 (VA - VB).

By applying this theorem, the calculation of this voltage will be resolved in an extremely simple way:

First, we will evaluate the VA-VB potential difference originated only by the voltage source. It will be
necessary to cancel the current source (replace it with an open circuit) as shown in Figure b).
Therefore, we can say:
V0
V A - V B = I R2 = R2
R1 + R 2

Then we will cancel the voltage source (we will replace it by a short circuit) and calculate the value of the
voltage at R2 produced only by the current source. The resulting circuit is shown in Figure c). If we
consider that resistors R1 and R2 are in parallel, we will obtain a single loop and therefore the expression
of the potential difference (VA - VB) will be:

R1 R2
V A - V B = I 0 ( R1 // R2 ) = I 0
R1 + R2

To finish, according to the superposition theorem, the real voltage in R2 terminals will be the sum of the
last two equations:

V0 R1 R2
V A -V B= R2 + I 0
R1 + R2 R1 + R2

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Basic Electronics Lineal Circuit Analysis Theorems

So, remember:
➢ The effects of two or more sources can be evaluated as the sum of the individual effects of each
source.
➢ When applying superposition’s theorem:
➢ Voltage Source ⇔ Short Circuit.
➢ Current Source ⇔ Open Circuit.

Exercise 2.1.
Exercise 2.2.
Exercise 2.8 using superposition’s method.

2.3 Thévenin’s Theorem

The formulation of this theorem by M.L. Thévenin, was a great step forward on the analysis of electric
circuits. According to this theorem, any circuit can be modeled using a voltage source (called Thévenin
voltage) in series with a resistor or a complex impedance, depending on the components of the circuit.

Therefore, we have in our hands a tool that will allow us to reduce complex circuits to equivalent models
formed only by a source of voltage and an impedance.

The calculation of the values of these elements, which form what is called Thévenin’s equivalent circuit, is
done in the following way:
1. Thévenin voltage equals the potential difference between the circuit terminals when it is in an open
circuit.

2. The resistance of Thévenin is equal to the impedance that is seen from the terminals of the circuit
when we cancel all independent power sources, that is, when we replace them by their Internal
resistance.

Let's clarify everything with an example:

Let’s suppose that we want to connect a load resistance 𝑅𝐿 between the terminals A and B. In order to
calculate the current that would circulate for 𝑅𝐿 , once connected, it would be necessary to do the study
of the currents that pass through the loops according to the law of Kirchoff.
Now, if we change the value of the load resistance, it would be necessary to repeat all the calculations.

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Basic Electronics Lineal Circuit Analysis Theorems

Through the equivalent circuit of Thévenin we can greatly simplify the process of establishing what
current is circulating for this resistor.

Let’s see how to proceed to calculate the Thévenin’s circuit:

1. Thévenin voltage is the potential difference existing in circuit terminals (VA - VB), without connecting
𝑅𝐿 . Taking B as the reference terminal (ground), the calculation of VA - VB is reduced to the calculation of
the voltage at point A. Given that for 𝑅3 there is no current (the resistor has a terminal without
connecting) this VA potential is equal to the potential at point C (VC). Now, and according to the law of
Kirchhoff’s currents, we can say:

I R1 + I R2 + I R3 = 0

( V0 -V A )
+ I0 +0= 0
R1

V A = V 0 + I 0 R1 = V th

2. To calculate the equivalent resistance of Thévenin it is necessary first to cancel all the existing sources
in the circuit. Particularly, we will replace all the voltage sources for their internal resistance, which will
normally be a short circuit (thus the potential difference that they will present will be zero and therefore
they will be canceled), and all the sources of current for open circuits (very internal resistance High).

Once the changes are made, the resistance that is seen from the circuit terminals is no other than the
sum of R3 and R1 (R2 does not intervene since it has a terminal not connected).

Rth = R3 + R1

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Basic Electronics Lineal Circuit Analysis Theorems

We can now replace the entire circuit by its Thévenin’s equivalent.

Clearly, the calculation of the current that would circulate for a load resistance RL, connected between
points A and B is quite simplified.

Exercise 2.12.
Exercise 2.16.

2.4 Norton’s Theorem

The Norton theorem can be considered as the dual of the previous theorem because it proposes that any
circuit can be replaced by a current source (which we will call Norton current) connected in parallel to an
impedance (called Norton Resistance).

The calculation of these parameters is done in the following way:

1.-The current of Norton is the current that circulates through the terminals of the circuit when these are
short circuited.

2.-The resistance of Norton is the one that is seen from the terminals when we cancel all the sources of
the circuit. Therefore, it is by definition, equal to the resistance of Thévenin.
In the previous example, if we short the terminals A and B and calculate the current in the direction of A
to B, using the second law of Kirchhoff on the node C:

𝐼𝑅1 + 𝐼𝑅2 = 𝐼𝑁

𝑉𝑜 − 𝑉𝑐
+ 𝐼𝑜 = 𝐼𝑁
𝑅1

𝑉𝑐 = 𝐼𝑁 × 𝑅3

V 0 + I 0 R1
IN=
R1 + R 3
Exercise 2.17.
Exercise 2.18.
Mixed Groups Exercises:
Exercise 2.7.
Exercise 2.11.
Exercise 2.13.
Exercise 2.14.
Exercise 2.15.
Exercise 2.19.
Exercise 2.20.
Extra Exercises:
Exercise 2.21 and 2.22.
Exercises 1.22. to 1.32.

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