Disorders of the ear
vascular layers and allow the jellylike vitreous humor to
Otitis media = infection of the middle ear.
Otitis externa = infection of the external auditory canal.
Otalgia = earache
Presbycusis = loss of the ability to hear high-pitched
sounds
Deafness = any hearing loss
Conduction deafness = something hampers sound
conduction (example: earwax)
Sensorineural deafness = results from damage to the
neural structures at any point from the cochlear hair
cells to and including the auditory cortical cells.
Vertigo = loss of balance and equilibrium due to inner
ear problems. May cause motion sickness: headache,
nausea, flushing, sweating, and vomiting.
Tinnitus = ringing or clicking sounds in the ears
Disorders of the eye
Myopia = also called “nearsightedness”
Person can see close objects but distant objects are
blurred.
Typically results from the eyeball being too long so that
the focal plane is extended so the light diverges again.
Corrective lenses have at least one concave surface.
Hyperopia = also called “farsightedness”
Person can see distant objects but close objects are
blurred.
Typically result from the eyeball being too short so that
the focal plane is never reached.
Corrective lenses have at least one convex surface.
Astigmatism = unequal curvature of the lens or cornea.
Cataracts = clouding of the lens that cause the world to
appear distorted.
Glaucoma = increased intraocular pressure which may
increase to dangerous levels and compress on the retina
and optic nerve. Usually occurs if the drainage of
aqueous humor is blocked.
Retinal detachment = the retina detaches from the
seep between them and can cause permanent
blindness.
Diplopia = double vision
Strabismus = “cross-eyed”
Colorblindness = congenital lack of one or more of the
cone types. Is inherited as a sex-linked condition and is
far more common in males (8-10%) and females.
Nyctalopia = “night blindness” that is usually the result
of a vitamin A deficiency.
Erythrocyte Disorders
Hemorrhagic anemia - anemia due to blood loss.
Possible causes: trauma, ulcers, hemorrhoids,
inflammation of the stomach (gastritis), and some
cancers of the gastrointestinal tract, menstruation, child
birth.
Anemia due to faulty or decreased RBC production
Sickle cell anemia - genetically inherited abnormal
hemoglobin synthesis (typically seen in African
American ancestry).
Iron deficiency - no iron results in small (microcytic)
pale (hypochromic) erythrocytes. May be caused by
either low dietary iron or an inability to absorb and
transport iron or slow, chronic bleeding. Especially
common in teens and children as well as in vegans and
vegetarians.
Megaloblastic anemia - decrease in total RBC numbers
because of impaired DNA synthesis stops mitosis
resulting in macrocytes. Possible causes are Vitamin B12
or folate deficiency in diet.
Pernicious anemia - decrease in total RBC numbers
because Vitamin B12 deficiency or deficiency of intrinsic
factor for Vitamin B12 absorption in the intestines.
Produces macrocytes. Seen in patients with Crohn’s
disease, surgical removal of the intestines or stomach,
intestinal parasites, and AIDS.
Aplastic anemia - failure of bone marrow to function
due to insufficient RBC stem cells. Caused by genetic
condition, ionizing radiation, drug use, some antibiotics,
some bacterial toxins, and some poisons.
Thalassemia - genetically inherited abnormal
hemoglobin synthesis during RBC maturity. Typically
seen in Mediterranean, Middle East, SE Asia, and
African ancestry.
Other causes of anemia: pregnancy, lead exposure,
chronic alcoholism, celiac disease, chronic kidney
disease, hypothyroidism, cancer, lupus, and rheumatoid
arthritis.
Anemia due to excessive destruction of RBCs.
Hemolytic anemia - an increase in the rate of
premature destruction of RBC (hemolysis).
Polycythemia - excess RBC cause blood to become even
more viscous and flows sluggishly.
Primary Polycythemia – often results from bone
marrow cancer or genetic disorders
Secondary Polycythemia – can by caused by
dehydration, low oxygen concentrations such as high
altitudes, lung disease, smoking or blood doping and
blood transfusions.
Malaria - a parasitic infection caused by a protozoan
called Plasmodium malariae. The organism initially
infects the liver and later the red blood cells. It is the
most severe disease in tropical countries, accounting for
1.5 – 3 million deaths per year.
Clotting Disorders
Thrombosis - high platelet count increasing the risk of
clot formation.
Thrombus - a clot (contains platelets, fibrin, , RBCs and
WBCs) that develops in an unbroken blood vessel.
Embolus - a thrombus that is freely floating in the
bloodstream.
Hemophilia A, B, or C - inability to clot because of
missing clotting factor (sex-linked inheritance).
Impaired liver function - results in vitamin K
deficiencies and therefore impaired coagulation.
Thrombocytopenia - low numbers of circulating
platelets causing spontaneous bleeding.
Disseminated Intravascular Coagulation (DIC) - wide-
spread clotting in one area of the body that quickly uses
up resources (clotting factors, platelets, etc.) resulting in
uncontrolled bleeding in other areas of the body.
Leukocyte Disorders
Leukopenia - also known as leukocytopenia; abnormally
low white blood cell count (numbers less than 4000
cells/l) is commonly induced by drugs, glucocorticoids,
and anti-cancer agents.
Leukocytosis - increase in white blood cell count
indicating an infection (numbers greater than 11,000
cells/l)
Infectious Mononucleosis - “kissing disease” is caused
by Epstein-Barr virus resulting in excessive numbers of
atypical agranulocytes.
Leukemia - cancerous condition of WBC and is named
after the predominate cell type involved either
lymphoid/lymphocytic leukemia - cancer derived from
lymphoblasts or myloid/mylocytic leukemia - cancer
derived from late stages of myeloblasts. In either case
WBCs are not functioning properly.
Chronic leukemia - mature leukocytes accumulate and
fail to die
Acute leukemia - an overproduction of young,
immature leukocytes
Septicemia - serious, life-threatening infection of the
blood; aka blood poisoning, caused by bacterial
infection elsewhere in the body now traveling
throughout the bloodstream.
Lymphoma - cancerous growth of T cells (non-Hodgkins)
or B cells (Hodgkins) accumulating in lymph nodes,
spleen, liver and other tissues. Malignant leukocytes do
not function properly. Some forms of lymphoma tend to
progress slowly (Hodgkins) and respond well to
treatment. Others tend to progress quickly and require
aggressive treatment, without which they are rapidly
fatal.
Valve disorders
Severance of cordae tendoneae might result in
prolapse of the valve. Prolapse can causes backflow of
blood – regurgitation. Regurgitation results in a murmur
upon auscultation. “swish” sound
Stenosis is a condition in which the heart valves become Myocardial Infarction (MI) - “heart attack”
rigid and may calcify over time. Stenosis can cause an
Sepsis - widespread pathogenic infection of the tissues.
“ejection click” or “opening snap” click upon
auscultation. Stenosis causes congenital, trauma, Septicemia - widespread pathogenic infection of the
infection, and aging. More info in auscultation section blood.
19.3.

Congenital Heart Defects

Patent foramen ovale - failure of the foramen ovale to

close at birth. Also called Atrial Septal Defect (ASD).

Coarctation of the aorta is a congenital abnormal

narrowing of the aorta that is normally located at the
insertion of the ligamentum arteriosum.

Patent Ductus Arteriosus (PDA) is a congenital

condition in which the ductus arteriosus fails to close.

Tetralogy of Fallot is a congenital condition that may

also occur from exposure to unknown environmental
factors. The term “tetralogy” is derived from the four
components of the condition; although only three may
be present in an individual patient:

pulmonary infundibular stenosis - rigidity of the

pulmonary valve.

overriding aorta - the aorta is shifted above both

ventricles.

ventricular septal defect (VSD) - opening

right ventricular hypertrophy - enlargement of the right

ventricle.

Additional Disease or Disorders of the Cardiovascular

System (not already mentioned)

Angina pectoris - chest pain related to coronary

problems

Atherosclerosis - plaque build-up (fat and cholesterol)

within the vessel. The plaque constricts the vessel
causing increased blood pressure and a reduction in
elasticity

Cardiac shock - or pump failure, occurs when the heart

is so inefficient that it cannot sustain adequate
circulation (common in myocardial infarction or
congestive heart failure).

Ischemia - decreased blood flow to a tissue that will

result in hypoxia (deficient oxygen).