Lingistics 10/25/2022

Average- Mediocrity
Targeting a certain goal in life
Socio Linguistics – improvement and development
Language has duality – the surface of the term and the surface of meaning
Language has Culture bound – fix to our culture
Hypotactic – Horizontal
Paratactic – Vertical
Descriptive – The structure of the language
Prescriptive – Perception in Language
Abrupt – physically
Delayed – chat
Sub Field of Linguistics
1. Descriptive Linguistics
- The study of the structure of language
2. Historical Linguistics
- Diachronic Language (language overtime)
- Anglo-Saxon (old english)
3. Sociolinguistics
- Deals with the social factors that affect the development of language
o Positive: Added
o Negative: Lessen
4. Psycholinguistics
- The study of language acquisition (acquire)
Factors:
 LAD (Language Acquisition Device) – imaginary organ at the back of
our brain
 Anyone has the capacity to learn
 Personal motivation and goals in life (nature & nurture)
 Strategies in teaching students Language
 Physical Response (imitation follows were in it becomes a
habit)
 Parents Reading a loud on children
5. Computational Linguistics
- Highly technical (were in it doesn’t use in a normal conversation)
System of Sounds
Phonology
- Phonetics – describes the concrete physical forms of sounds, how they are
produced, heard and how they can be described.
- Phonology – is concerned with the junction of sounds, that is with their status and
inventory in any given language
 - Phone – is the basic unit of phonetics or the concrete sound substance. The
substance is described on the basis of articulatory properties.
Classification of Sounds
- Consonants – are sounds that are produced without major obstructions in the
mouth cavity
- Vowels – are sounds produced with major obstruction in the mouth cavity
Classification of Consonants
1. Plosives – blocking the air flow (completely)
a. Bilabial Plosives (p) & (b)
b. Alveolar Plosives (t) & (d)
c. Velar Plosives (k) & (g)
2. Fricatives – blocking the air flow (not at all)
a. Labio-dental (f) (v)
b. Interdental (θ) (J)
c. Alveolar (s) (z)
d. Palate Alveolar (∫ = ch) (3 = zh)
e. Glottal (h)
International Phonetic Alphabet (i)
Tense Vowels – Longer production
Lax Vowels – Shorter Production
Prefix (il)logical
Morphme il(logic)al
Suffix illogic(al)
Bound Morpheme
Free Morphme
International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)
Introduced by Kenneth Pike
- Is a guide for English speakers to pronounce words correctly
- Set standards in all English speakers
Phrase
- a group of words or singular word acting as a grammatical unit.
- Is group of words without subject and predicate and does not express a complete
thought or idea.
Clause
- Is a group of words with subject and predicate but may or may not express complete
thought or ideas.
- Subordinate (Dependent) Clause – subordinating conjunction
- Coordinate (Independent) Clause – coordinating conjunction
o For
o And
 o Nor
o But
o Or
o Yet
o So

Syntax
- Syntax is not about meaning! Sentences can have no sense and still be grammatically
correct
- From Greek syntaxis from syn (together) + taxis (arrangement).
- Words can be categorized into parts of speech (lexical categories, word classes)
based on their morphological, syntactic and semantic properties.
- Lexical Categories are: Noun, Verb, Adjective, Adverb, and Preposition. They carry
meaning, and often words with a similar (synonym) or opposite meaning (antonym)
can be found
Word Classes
- Nouns are words for people, places or things like: mother, town, Rome, car, dog.
o Classification of Nouns

 Proper Nouns
 Common Nouns
 Concrete Nouns
 Abstract Nouns
 Collective Nouns
- Verbs are action or state words like: run, work, study, be, seem.
- Adjectives are words that describe nouns, like: kind, clever, expensive.
- Adverbs are words that modify verbs, adjectives or other adverbs, like: quickly, back,
ever, badly, away generally, completely.
- Determiners are a word that introduces a noun. It always comes before a noun, not
after, and it also comes before any other adjectives used to describe the noun. E.g.
The bunny went home, or I ate the chocolate cookie for dessert.
- Prepositions are words usually in front of a noun or pronoun and expressing a
relation to another word or element, like: after, down, near, of, plus, round.
- Pronouns are words that take the place of nouns, like: me, you, his, it, this, that,
mine, yours, who, what.
- Conjunctions are a word that joins words, phrases, clauses or sentences, like: but,
and, yet, or, because, nor, although, since, unless, while, where.
- Interjections have no grammatical value - words like: ah, hey, oh, ouch, um, well
Predication
- process where predicate comes first before the subject but still correct
Subject-Verb Agreement (Singular-Singular) (Plural-Plural)

Nouns Verbs
 Boy walks
Teacher teaches
Boys Walk
teachers teach

Phrase
- Traditionally “phrase” is defined as “a group of words that does not contain a verb
and its subject and is used as a single part of speech.”
- This definition entails three characteristics:
(1) it specifies that only a group of words can constitute a phrase, implying that a
single word cannot;
(2) it distinguishes phrases from clauses; and
(3) it requires that the groups of words believed to be a phrase constitute a
single grammatical unit.
NOUN PHRASE
- A noun phrase includes a noun—a person, place, or thing—and the modifier(s)
(either before and/or after) that distinguish it.
HW/Noun + Modifier
- S-TV-DO
1. S + IV
2. S +LV +C
3. S + TV – DO (Jerome adopted__________)
4. S + TV – DO – OC (The class considers their teachers mortal enemy)
5. S + TV – IO –DO (The old man gave the street children some snacks)
- Appositive (IV & TV)
Structure of Modification
1. The prenominal modifiers are presented first.
- Determiner as modifier: the boy
- Noun as modifier (called “noun adjunct”): chocolate cake
- Verb as modifier - present participle form: chattering girls
- past participle form: recommended lists
- Adjective as modifier: pretty women
2. The post nominal modifiers include the following.
- Adverb as modifier: the house over there
- Infinitive as modifier: a house to rent
- Present Participial Phrase as modifier: the boy coming in second
- Past Participial Phrase as modifier: people raised in the city
- Adjective Phrase as modifier: children, big and small
- Prepositional Phrase as modifier: the house on the hill
- Relative Clause as modifier: the stranger who I met
VERB PHRASE
Verb phrases can consist of one to three linking verbs, and action verbs, and sometimes
any complements (such as objects or direct objects).
VERB PHRASE
- She smells the pizza. (verb is smells)
 - She can smell the pizza. (verb phrase is can smell)
- He appears on screen as an actor. (verb is appears)
- He has appeared on screen as an actor. (verb phrase is has appeared)
- I study Italian. (verb is study)
- I will have been studying Italian for three years. (verb phrase is will have been
studying)
- The duck left the pool.
Prepositional Phrases
- A prepositional phrase begins with a preposition and can act as a noun, an
adjective or an adverb.
- Of from behind to beside beneath inside across below against above with the
outside
Example: The woman with blond hair is my aunt (modifying the word woman)
Examples are:
• The book was on the table.
• We camped by the brook.
• He knew it was over the rainbow.
• She was lost in the dark of night.
• He was between a rock and a hard place.
• I waited for a while.
• She smelled of strawberries and cream.
• He won the challenge against all odds.
ADVERBIAL PHRASE
An adverb phrase is simply a group of two or more words that function as an adverb in a
sentence. Just as an adverb can modify a verb, adjective or another adverb, an adverb phrase of
more than one word can further describe a verb, adverb, or adjective.
Adverb phrases typically answer the questions how, where, why or when something was
done, as you'll see in the adverb phrase examples below.
ADVERBIAL PHRASE
Adverb Phrases Describing How
- Surprisingly well – Students performed during the exam surprisingly well
- In total silence – Students answered their exams in total silently
- Very carefully – Students read each question very carefully
- Quite easily – Students completed their exam quite easily
Adverb Phrases Describing Where
- Near the edge – The sad man drew himself near the edge
- Through the looking glass – Alice passes through the looking glass
- Over the rainbow – The fairies are dancing over the rainbow
- By the mailbox -
- Around the sun – The earth revolves around the sun
Adverb Phrases Describing Why
- To understand better – The teacher re-taught the lesson for them to understand
better
- For her happy ever after – Kongay’ s father sacrificed himself for her happy ever
after
- For pity's sake -
- To make the most of it – People from the province extend their vacation to make
the most out of it
- To end discrimination – People across the world unite to end discrimination
Adverb Phrases Describing When (TIME)
- As quickly as possible – Students forwarded their requirements as quick as
possible
- Any time -
- Yesterday afternoon – Participants arrived at the venue yesterday afternoon
- After a few minutes – The guest left after a few minutes
- Never at midnight
Gerund Phrases
A gerund phrase is simply a noun phrase that starts with a gerund.
Examples include:
• Taking my dog for a walk is fun.
• Walking in the rain can be difficult.
• Strolling along a beach at sunset is romantic.
• Getting a promotion is exciting.
• Signing autographs takes time.
• Singing for his supper was how he earned his keep.
• Sailing into the sunset was the perfect end to the book.
• Dancing is my favorite hobby (gerund)
Infinitive Phrases
An infinitive phrase is a noun phrase that begins with an infinitive verb.
Here are some examples:
• To make lemonade, you have to start with lemons.
• I tried to see the stage, but I was too short.
• She organized a boycott to make a statement.
• To see Niagara Falls is mind-boggling.
• He really needs to get his priorities in order.
• The company decided to reduce hours for everyone.
• To donate time or money is an honorable thing.
• I went to Spain to study the language and culture.
Appositive Phrases
An appositive phrase restates and defines a noun. It consists of one or more words.
Examples are:
• My favorite pastime, needlepoint, surprises some people.
 • Her horse, an Arabian, was her pride and joy.
• My wife, the love of my life, is also my best friend.
• A cheetah, the fastest land animal, can run 70 miles an hour.
• My idea, a recycling bin for the office, was accepted by the boss.
• The Florida panther, the state animal of Florida, is an endangered species.
Participial Phrases
A participial phrase begins with a past or present participle.
Examples are:
• Washed with my clothes, my cell phone no longer worked.
• Knowing what I know now, I wish I had never come here.
• I am really excited, considering all the people that will be there.
• We are looking forward to the movie, having seen the trailer last week.
• Grinning from ear to ear, she accepted her award.
• The happy dog ran the entire length of the park, pausing only to sniff the dandelions.
• Painted a brilliant white, the small room appeared bigger.
• The lake, frozen over all winter, was finally thawing.