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Heredity
Heredity
Introduction: Reproductive process gives rise to new individuals that are similar but with some
variations. Thus the similarities between parents & offspring's are due to heredity and the dissimilarities
are due to variation. Continuity of life is maintained through heredity and evolution.
Heredity explains that the organisms resemble each other because they arise from common ancestor.
Evolution: is the orderly change of various forms through a slow but continuous process. It give rise to a
new complex body design even while the simpler body designs continue to flourish.
Heredity: The transfer of characters or traits from the parents to their off springs is called heredity.
Variation: The differences between the characters or traits among the individuals of the same species are
called variations.
Importance of variation:
1. They enable the organism to adapt them in changing environment.
3. They form raw material for evolution and development of new species.
When organisms reproduce, the off springs show minor variations due to inaccuracies in DNA copying.
These variations are less in asexual reproduction and more in sexual reproduction.
Since DNA copying cannot be possible 100% always, DNA copying always involves some variations; thus it
will bring a subtle change in it for the next generation. If this reproduces the newborn will have differences
that they inherit from the first generation, as well as some newly created differences. Therefore variations
gets accumulated generation after generation resulting in Speciation i.e. Evolution.
Some variations are useful variations and they help the organism to adjust to the changes in the
environment. Some variations do not help the organism to adjust to the changes in the environment and
they may die and become extinct.
They exhibit very little variations due to some environmental factors or mutations which are
sudden change in genes. Out of these two factors only mutations are inheritable
Heredity & variation in Sexual Reproduction: In sexual reproduction two parents are involved and
there is formation & fusion of gametes. The offspring show variations from their parents due to crossing
over and exchange of gene segments. They are not carbon copy of their parents, due to recombination of
parental genes; so variations which occur are inheritable.
Inherited traits: The Traits / Characters which transfers from parents to offspring generation after
generation
The inheritance of characters is due to the fact that both the father and mother contributes equal amount
of genetic material to the child. So for each trait there are two factors one from the father and one from
the mother.
Gregor Johann Mendel conducted experiments with garden pea plants and determined the rules for the
inheritance of traits.
Gregor Johann Mendal: Was an Austrian Geneticist and regarded as ‘father of Genetics’.
He performed his experiment on Garden peas (Pisum sativum) during 1856 to 865 and published his results
in a book ‘Experiments on plant hybridisation’. Mendal works remain unrecognised till his death in the year
1884.
Rediscovery of Mendal work: in 1900 by 3 scientist’s separately-
1) Hugo de vries (Dutch)- on Evening primerose (Oenothera lamarkiana)
2) Carl Correns(German)- on 4’O clock plant(Mirabilis jalapa )
3) Teschermack(Austrian)- on Garden pea. (Pisum sativum)
Mendal Experiment on Inheritance of Traits: Mendal used a number of contrasting visible
characters of garden pea like:
Monohybrid cross:- The cross between the plants having only one pair of contrasting character (Eg:- tall
and short plant) is called monohybrid cross.
Mendel selected pea plants having one pair of character – a tall pea plant and a short pea plant. He
selected pure tall (TT) and pure short (tt) pea plants and cross pollinated them. He obtained all tall plants
(Tt) in the first generation (F1 ). When the first generation plants were self pollinated, he obtained tall and
dwarf plants in the ratio 3:1 (Phenotypic Ratio) in the second generation. (F2)
The ratio of pure tall (TT), hybrid tall (Tt) and pure dwarf (tt) / Genotypic Ratio was in the ratio 1:2:1
Dihybrid cross:- The cross between the plants having two pairs of contrasting characters (Eg:- shape and
colour of seeds) is called Dihybrid cross. Mendel selected pea plants having two pairs of characters – shape
and colour of seed. He selected plants having round yellow seeds (RRYY) and wrinkled green seeds (rryy)
and cross pollinated them.
He obtained all plants with round yellow seeds (RrYy) in the F1 generation. When these plants were
self pollinated in the F2 generation out of 16 plants, 9 had round yellow (RrYy), 3 had round green (Rryy), 3
had wrinkled yellow (rrYy) and 1 had wrinkled green (rryy) seed. In the ratio 9:3:3:1 (Phenotypic ratio).
Cellular DNA is the information source for making protein in the cell. A section of DNA that provides
information for one protein is called the gene for that protein.
Tallness of a plant – we know that plants have hormones that can trigger growth. Plant height can
thus depend on amount of a particular plant hormone. The amount of plant hormone depends on the
efficiency of the process of making it. Consider now an enzyme that is important for this process. If this
enzyme works efficiently, a lot of hormone will be made, and the plant will be tall. If the gene for that
enzyme has an alteration that makes the enzymes less efficient, the amount of hormone will be less, and
the plant will be short.
Sex determination in human beings : Human beings have 23 pairs of chromosomes in the nucleus of
the cell. Out of this two chromosomes are sex chromosomes X and Y. The female has two X chromosomes
(XX) and male has one X and one Y chromosome (XY). The sperms and eggs have one set of sex
chromosomes. Some sperms have X chromosome and some have Y chromosome. All eggs have X
chromosome.If a sperm having X chromosome fuses with an egg having X chromosome the child will be a
girl. If a sperm having Y chromosome fuses with an egg having X chromosome the child will be a boy.
i) Accumulation of variations :- The differences between the individuals of the same species is called
variations. The accumulation of variations over several generations produces new species.
ii) Physical barriers :- Populations may get separated by physical barriers like mountains, rivers, lakes etc.
These isolated groups produce variations which can produce new species.
iii) Genetic drift :- Natural calamities or introduction of new members of the same species in an area can
produce changes in the gene pool of the population and new variations are produced which can produce
new species.
iv) Natural selection: - Only those individuals of a species which have useful variations and can adapt to
the changes in the environment survive and the others die. These organisms can produce variations and
new species.
v) Migration :- Some individuals of a species may migrate to a new geographical area and adjust to the
changes in the environment there and develop new variations and produce new species.
Evolution
The gradual changes taking place in living organisms giving rise to new organisms due to changes in their
genetic composition is called evolution.
Inherited traits :- Inherited traits are traits in an organism due to changes in the genetic composition
and it can be passed from one generation to the next and it results in evolution..
Acquired traits :- Acquired traits are traits which are acquired by an organism during its lifetime and it
cannot be passed from one generation to the next and it does not result in evolution.
Evidences of evolution :-There are a number of common features in different organisms which
provide evidence to show evolutionary relationship. The main evidences of evolution are from the study of
:- Homologous organs, Analogous organs and Fossils.
Homologous organs :- are organs which are similar in structure but different in functions.
Eg :- The fore limbs of amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals have similar structures but different
functions. Frog (amphibian) uses its fore limb to raise the front of the body. Lizard (reptile) uses its fore
limb for walking and running. Birds fore limbs are modified as wings for flying. Mammals use the fore limbs
for grasping, walking, running, swimming, flying etc. This shows evolutionary relationship.
ANALOGOUS ORGAN: are those organs which are dissimilar in origin i.e. have different basic structural
organ but have similar appearance and perform similar functions.
e.g.- the wings of birds and bats look similar but have different designs in their structure. Wings of bats are
skin folds stretched between elongated fingers but wings of birds are covered by feathers all aling the arm.
Tracing evolutionary relationship: - fossil provides best evolutionary relationship among various
organisms.
Fossils (L. Fadio= to dig out) :- are either the remains or impressions of organisms which lived long
ago.
Study of fossil is called Paleontology. Leonardo de Vinci is called “father of Paleontology” George Cuvier is
known as “father of modern Paleontology”
From the study of fossils we can know their structures and the time period in which they lived. The fossils
of complex and recent organisms are found closer to the surface of the earth and the fossils of simpler
organisms are found deeper inside the earth. The age of fossils can be determined by Radio Carbon Dating.
The study of fossils shows evolution of simpler forms into complex forms and their evolutionary
relationship.
Types of fossils:
(A) Unaltered fossils:-
(B) Altered fossils: represent the impression of the past organisms not remains of the past organisms.
i) Petrified fossils: are those fossils which are formed on the principal of replacement of
molecules of past organisms. The replacing molecule can be eitherIron pyrites or Silica or
Calcium Carbonate. It gives the idea of the past organisms even at molecular level.
ii) Moulds: Represents impression of past organisms on harden mud or soil.
iii) Compression: Represent thin carbon film of the past organisms giving outline of the external
features.
iv) Tracks: are foot impression of past organisms on wet sand or soil.
v) Trails: are impression of foot of crawling organisms.
vi) Caprolites: are fossil preservation of undigested and excretory wastes of past organisms.
Formation of fossil: is called Fossilisation. Formed layer by layer in the earths crust.
1. If we dig into the earth and start finding fossils, it can be assumed that fossil closer to the surface are
more recent to those found in deeper layers.
2. By detecting the ratio of different isotopes of the same element in the fossil material.
e.g.- Carbon-14 dating technique.
Evolution by stages: Complex organisms and its organs developed from simpler organisms gradually
over generations.
i) Evolution of eyes :- The eyes of planaria are just eye spots to detect light. It developed gradually into a
complex organ in higher animals.
ii) Evolution of feathers :- Feathers were first developed in dinosaurs and used for protection from cold.
Later birds used them for flying.
iii) Evolution by artificial selection :- Humans cultivated wild cabbage for over 2000 years and produced
different vegetables from it by artificial selection.
Human beings have not evolved from chimpanzees. They had a common ancestor from which they evolved
separately. Human beings are not the pinnacle of evolution but they are only one species among the
several evolving species.
A/c to Darwin:-
Over production.
Almost constant population.
Struggle for existence- Intraspecific, Interspecific, Environmental Struggle.
Variation: Appearance of variation in organisms during struggle for existence.
Natural selection / Survival of the fittest
Inheritance of useful variation
3. Mutation Theory: by Hugo de Vries
“A new species is originating from pre-existing species slowly in single step due to genetic variation called
‘mutation’’
Mutation: is sudden inheritable change. It occurs commonly in naturally breading population. Mutation
is direction less occurring in any direction. It is a subject for natural selection & most of the mutation is
lethal or fatal.
(A)Ploidy mutation:-
(i) Euploidy: changes involving complete set of chromosome.
(ii) Aneuploidy: changes due to loss or gain of one or two chromosomes from a diploid set.
(i)Chromosomal abberation:
(a) intra- chromosomal: changes within a chromosome brought through deletion, duplication or
Inversion(paracentric & pericentric)
4. Neo-Darwinism: is explanation & elaboration of natural selection of Darwin in the light of modern
genetics- Genetic variation, Natural selection & isolation leads to evolution/speciation
Origin of life on earth: J.B.S. Haldane, a British scientist(who later become Indian) suggested that life
must have developed from the simple inorganic molecules which were present on the earth at that time(
Ammonia, Methane & Hydrogen sulphide; but no oxygen) to more complex organic molecules. Thus the
first primitive organisms would arise from further chemical synthesis.
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