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steam engine

engineer.
 Itis a machine for converting energy
into motion or mechanical work.
 The energy is usually supplied in the
form of a chemical fuel, (such as oil, or
gasoline), steam, or electricity, and the
mechanical work is most commonly
delivered in the form of rotary motion
of a shaft.
1. The place where
2.The type of
the exchange from 3. The form of
motion of their
chemical to heat energy they utilize.
principal parts.
energy takes place.

5. The number of 6. The method by

4. The type of fuel
strokes of the piston which the engine is
ignition system
for a complete cycle cooled

8. The position of
7. Type of Starting 9. Arrangement of
the cylinders of the
System valves and camshaft
engine.
An Otto cycle is an idealized thermodynamic
cycle which describes the functioning of a
typical spark ignition reciprocating piston
engine, the thermodynamic cycle most
commonly found in automobile engines.
Ideal and actual cycles

-Ideal cycles are simplified

 • Nikolaus Otto was born in
Holzhausen, Germany on 10th
June 1832. In his early years he
began experimenting with gas
engines and completed his first
atmospheric engine in 1867.
• In 1872 he joined with Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach and in
1876 developed the first 4-stroke cycle internal combustion engine
based on principles patented in 1862 by Alphonse Beau de Rochas.
Although Otto's patent claim for the 'Otto Cycle' was invalidated in
1886, his engineering work led to the first practical use of the 4-
stroke cycle which was to provide the driving force for transportation
for over a century. Nikolaus Otto died on 26th January 1891.
The four stroke in an OTTO CYCLE engine

click
Intake stroke
• 1st Stroke (green line): During this stroke an
intake valve is opened that lets in air and fuel,
the two ingredients necessary for combustion.
This stroke is an adiabatic expansion process as
no heat is added to the system.
Compression stroke
• 2nd Stroke (orange line): During this stroke the
cylinder is sealed off from the outside atmosphere
and the air/fuel mixture is compressed so that it will
easily and forcefully combust. This stroke is an
adiabatic compression process as no heat is added to
the system.
 Power stroke
• 3rd Stroke (red line): Also called combustion stroke. Both
valves are closed, this is the start of the second revolution
of the engine. While the piston is close to TDC, the
compressed air–fuel mixture in a gasoline engine is
ignited, usually by a spark plug. The resulting massive
pressure from the combustion of the compressed fuel-air
mixture forces the piston back down toward BDC.
 Exhaust stroke
• 4th stroke (blue line): In the end of the power stroke,
the exhaust valve opens. During this stroke, the
piston starts its movement in the maximum volume
position. The exhaust valve opens to allow the
exhaust gases to escape the cylinder. At the end of
this stroke, the exhaust valve closes, the inlet valve
opens, and the sequence repeats in the next cycle.
The OTTO CYCLE process
Process 1-2 Piston moves from crank end
adiabatic compression (bottom dead center) to cover end
(top dead center) and an ideal gas
with initial state 1 is compressed
isentropically to state point 2,
through compression ratio (V1/V2).
Mechanically this is the adiabatic
compression of the air/fuel
mixture in the cylinder, also known
as the compression stroke.
Generally the compression ratio is
around 9-10:1 (V1:V2) for a typical
engine.
1
2
Process 2-3
Heat addition at constant volume
The piston is momentarily at rest
at TDC and heat is added to the
working fluid at constant volume
from an external heat source
which is brought into contact with
the cylinder head. The pressure
rises and the ratio is called the
"explosion ratio". At this instant the
air/fuel mixture is compressed at the top
of the compression stroke with the
volume essentially held constant, also
known as ignition phase.
2-3
Process 3-4
Adiabatic
expansion The increased high pressure
exerts a greater amount of
force on the piston and
pushes it towards the BDC.
Expansion of working fluid
takes place isentropically and
work is done by the system.
The volume ratio (V3/V4)is
called "isentropic expansion
ratio". Mechanically this is the
adiabatic expansion of the hot
gaseous mixture in the
cylinder head, also known as
expansion (power) stroke.
3

4
Process 4-1
rejection of heat at constant volume

• The piston is
momentarily at rest at
BDC and heat is rejected
to the external sink by
bringing it in contact with
the cylinder head. The
process is so controlled
that ultimately the
working fluid comes to its
initial state 1 and the
cycle is completed.
4-1
P-V and T-S diagram

CV PD
vmin vmax
SUMMARY: Actual and ideal cycles in spark-ignition engines
Efficiency vs Compression Ratio

Higher ratios produce

auto ignition and
Knocking. Higher compression ratios,
up to about 15 to 1, with a resulting
increase of efficiency, are possible
with the use of high-octane antiknock
fuels.
Efficiency vs ratio of specific heats

He

Air

Combustion
mixture
The Ideal Otto Cycle

r
 MEP = mean effective pressure, same amount of work

Compression Ratio
= PD + CV = Vmax
CV Vmin
The net specific work
in a complete cycle is used to define a mean effective pressure
Wnet =∫Pdv = Pmeff(vmax-vmin)
Engine displacement/Piston Displacement is the volume swept by all
the pistons inside the cylinders of an internal combustion engine in a single
movement from top dead centre (TDC) to bottom dead centre (BDC)
PD = (∏/4) x bore2 x stroke x no. of cylinders
Clearance Volume is the remaining volume above the piston head at TDC.
CR = Piston Displacement + clearance volume = PD + CV =_ PD_ + 1
Clearance volume CV CV
The mean effective pressure is a quantity to the operation of a
reciprocating engine and is a valuable measure of an engine's capacity to do
work that is independent of engine displacement.
Pmeff = Wnet/(v1 – v2)
TERMS and Equations
• Compression Ratio is that ratio of combustion chamber volume at Bottom
Dead Center (BDC) to that volume at Top Dead Center (TDC).
-High compression ratio engines may be expected to be more
efficient than low compression engines.
Compression Ratio , CR or r = PD+CV = Vmax = VBDC = V1 = V3
CV Vmin VTDC V2 V4
 High compression ratios however may lead to:
➢ the rise in temperature of the air–fuel mixture above the autoignition temperature of
the fuel (the temperature at which the fuel ignites without the help of a spark) during the
combustion process.
➢ Autoignition - an early and rapid burn of the fuel at some point or points ahead of the
flame front, followed by almost instantaneous inflammation of the end gas.
➢ Engine Knock – an audible noise caused by air-fuel autoignition.
➢ Engine damage
• Octane rating is a measure of the engine knock resistance of a fuel.
The higher the value the more resistant the fuel.
OTTO CYCLE equations
• The energy balance for any of the processes is expressed

• Heat transfer to and from the working fluid can be expressed as

• The thermal efficiency of the ideal Otto cycle under the cold air standard
assumptions

• Processes 1-2 and 3-4 are isentropic, and v2 = v3 and v4= v1. Thus,

P3/P2 = T3/T2 P2=P1(v1/v2)k

k is the specific heat ratio of air cp/cv
• Power produced
WHERE:
Nrev = 2rev/cycle
n = rpm or rev/sec
 Solved problems
1. A gasoline engine receives air at 10 oC, 100 kPa, having a compression
ratio of 9:1 by volume. The heat addition by combustion gives the
highest temperature as 2500 K. use cold air properties to find the
highest cycle pressure, the specific energy added by combustion, and
the mean effective pressure.

2500K or 2226.86oC

283.15 K or 10 oC
100 KPa

GIVEN: REQ’D:
T1 = 283.15 K or 10 oC 1. The highest cycle pressure, P3
P1 = 100KPa 2. The specific energy added by combustion , qH
T2 = 2500K or 2226.86oC
Cvo = 0.717 KJ/Kg K
3. The mean effective pressure, Pmeff or MEP
K = 1.4 for air
Assumptions:
1. The air-standard assumptions are applicable.
2. Kinetic and potential energy changes are negligible.
3. Air is an ideal gas with constant specific heats.
Properties:
The properties of air at room temperature are R= 0.287KJ/Kg-K, Cp=1.004 KJ/Kg-K, Cv= 0.717
KJ/Kg-K,and k= 1.4 (Table A.5)

SOLUTION

@ PROCESS 1-2 Compression: Reversible and adiabatic so s1=s2

P2=P1(v1/v2)k = 100 Kpa(9)1.4 = 2167.4Kpa
T2=T1(V1/V2)k-1 = 283.15 K(9)0.4= 681.89 K
@ PROCESS 2 -3 Combustion: Constant volume v2=v3
The maximum Pressure
P3 =P2(T3/T2) = 2167.4Kpa (2500/681.89) = 7946.3 KPa

Heat added
qH = u3-u2 = Cv(T3-T2) = (0.717 KJ/Kg-K)(2500-681.89) = 1303.6 KJ/Kg
The mean effective pressure MEP or Pmeff

The thermal efficiency

ɳTH = 1-(1/r1-k) = 1-(1/90.4) = 0.5847

Net Work
Wnet = ɳTH x qH = (0.5847)(1303.6 KJ/Kg) = 762.21 KJ/Kg

Using the specific volume to solve MEP

V1 =RT1/P1 = (0.287KJ/Kg-K)(283.15K/100) =0.81264 m3/kg

The specific volume is proportional with the displacements

v2/v1 = V2/V1 = 1/r v2 =v1/9 = 0.81264/9 =0.090293m3/kg

Thus the mean effective pressure MEP or Pmeff

Pmeff = Wnet/(v1-v2) = ______762.21____ = 1055 KPa

0.81264 -0.090293
2. Given a six-cylinder, four-stroke, spark-ignition engine operating on the
ideal Otto cycle is considered. The power produced by the engine is to be
determined.
Given:
T1 = 525 R V2 = 0.14 V1
T3 = 2060 R
Assumptions:
1. The air-standard assumptions are applicable.
2. Kinetic and potential energy changes are negligible.
3. Air is an ideal gas with constant specific heats.
Properties:
The properties of air at room temperature are R= 0.3704 psia·ft3/lbm.R (Table A-1E), cp= 0.240
Btu/lbm·R, Cv= 0.171 Btu/lbm·R,and k= 1.4 (Table A-2Ea).

Analysis: From the data specified in the problem statement,

r = v1/v2 = v1/0.14v1 = 7.143
Since the compression and expansion processes are isentropic,
T2 = T1(v1/v2)k-1 = T1r k-1 = (525 R)(7.143)1.4-1 = 1153 R

T4 = T3(v3/v4)k-1 = (2060 R)(1/7.143) 1.4-1 = 938 R

Application of the first law to the compression and expansion processes gives
Wnet = Cv (T3-T4) – Cv(T2-T1)
= (0.171Btu/lbm.R)(2060-938.2)R – (0.171Btu/lbm.R)(1153-525)R
= 84.44Btu/lbm
When each cylinder is charged with the air-fuel mixture,

V1 = RT1/P1 = (0.3704 psia-ft3/lbm.R)(525 R)/(14psia) = 13.89 ft3/lbm

The total air mass taken by all 6 cylinders when they are charged is

m = Ncyl(∆V/v1) = Ncyl (∏ B2S/4) = (6) ∏ (3.5/12ft)2(3.9/12ft)/4 = 0.009380 lbm

v1 13.89 ft3/lbm
The net work produced per cycle is
Wnet = mwnet = (0.00938 lbm)(84.44Btu/lbm) = 0.7920 Btu/cycle

The power produced is determined from

Ẇnet = Wnetṅ/Nrev = (0.7920 Btu/cycle)(2500/60 rev/s)(1hp/0.7068 Btu/s) = 23.3
hp
2rev/cycle
Where: ṅ =angular speed and Nrev = 2rev/cycle
Since there are two revolutions per cycle in a four stroke
• A gasoline engine has a volumetric compression ratio
of 8 and before compression has air at 280 K, 85 kPa.
The combustion generates a peak pressure of 6500
kPa. Find the peak temperature, the energy added by
the combustion process and the exhaust temperature.

6500 KPa

280 K
85 KPa

Vmin = v2 = v3 Vmax = v1 = v4
GIVEN: REQ’D:
T1 = 280 K
P1 = 85 KPa
1. The peak temperature, T3
P2 = 6500KPa 2. The specific energy added by combustion , qH
Cvo = 0.717 KJ/Kg K 3. The exhaust temperature
K = 1.4 for air
Assumptions:
1. The air-standard assumptions are applicable.
2. Kinetic and potential energy changes are negligible.
3. Air is an ideal gas with constant specific heats.
Properties:
The properties of air at room temperature are R= 0.287KJ/Kg-K, Cp=1.004 KJ/Kg-K, Cv= 0.717
KJ/Kg-K,and k= 1.4 (Table A.5)

@ Process 1-2 isentropic compression s1=s2 , the pressure and temperature at 2

P2 =P1(v1/v2)k = 85 KPa(8)1.4 = 1562 Kpa

T2 = T1(v1/v2)k-1 = 280(8)0.4 = 643.3 K

@ Process 2-3 Combustion – Heat addition at constant volume, The peak
temperature at 3 and heat added in the process
The peak temperature
T3 = T2(P3/P2) = 643.3 x 6500/1562 = 2677 K

The heat added

qH = Cv(T3 –T2) = 0.717 (2677-643.3) = 1458 KJ/Kg
@ Process 3-4 isentropic expansion , the exhaust temperature
T3/T4 = (v4/v3)k-1 = 80.4

T4 = T3/80.4 =2677/2.2974 = 1165 K

Review Problems
1. Air flows into a gasoline engine at 95 kPa,300 K. The air is then compressed with a
volumetric compression ratio of 8:1. In the combustion process 1300 kJ/kg of
energy is released as the fuel burns. Find the temperature and pressure after
combustion using cold air properties. Answers: 2502 K, 6338 kPa
2. A gasoline engine has a volumetric compression ratio of 10 and before compression
has air at 290 K, 85 kPa in the cylinder. The combustion peak pressure is 6000 kPa.
Assume cold air properties. What is the highest temperature in the cycle? Find the
temperature at the beginning of the exhaust (heat rejection) and the overall cycle
efficiency. Answers: 2047 K, 814.9 K, 0.602
3. A four stroke gasoline engine has a compression ratio of 10:1 with 4 cylinders of
total displacement 2.3 L. the inlet state is 280 K, 70 kPa and the engine is running at
2100 RPM with the fuel adding 1800 kJ/kg in the combustion process. What is the
net work in the cycle and how much power is produced? Answers: 1083.6 kJ/kg ,
42.2 kW
4. The compression ratio of an air-standard Otto cycle is 9.5. Prior to the isentropic
compression process, the air is at 100 kPa, 35°C, and 600 cm3. The temperature at
the end of the isentropic expansion process is 800 K. Using specific heat values at
room temperature, determine (a) the highest temperature and pressure in the
cycle; (b) the amount of heat transferred in, in kJ; (c) the thermal efficiency; and (d)
the mean effective pressure. Answers: (a) 1969 K, 6072 kPa, (b) 0.59 kJ, (c) 59.4
percent, (d) 652 kPa
• Stuttgart, Germany,– In November 1885 the Daimler riding car made
its first journey of real length in public, when Gottlieb Daimler’s son
Adolf completed the three-kilometre route from Cannstatt to
Untertürkheim.
• A year later Daimler built his first four-wheeled motor vehicle.
Gottlieb Daimler and Carl Benz would later become known as the
inventors of the automobile. Carl Benz was awarded the German
Patent No. DRP 37435 for his Patent Motor Car on 19 January 1886,
a document considered as the birth certificate of the car.
Uses of OTTO CYCLE engines
1. The place where the exchange from
chemical to heat energy takes place.
a. External combustion engine
combustion is external to the engine (e.g. steam, Stirling
engine, gas turbine)
 b. Internal combustion engine

• fuel is burned within the engine proper

(including e.g. rocket engines, jet Engines,
firearms)
Engine classified as to:

It is an engine with one or more cylinders in which

pistons move backward and forward.

In the 1950s the German engineer Felix Wankel

developed an internal-combustion engine of a
radically new design, in which the piston and
cylinder were replaced by a three-cornered rotor
turning in a roughly oval chamber.
Reciprocating engine
Rotary engine
Engine classified as to:

A. Steam – for steam B. Compressed air – for

engines diesel engines

C. Gasoline – for
D. LPG
petrol/gasoline engines

E. other energy used

(CNG), hydrogen, and (in
drag racing) nitromethane
Engine classified as to:

Spark-ignition system
• refers to internal combustion engines,
usually petrol engines, where the
combustion process of the air-fuel mixture
is ignited by a spark from a spark plug.

Compression-ignition system
• Diesel engine
Engine classified as to:

a. Two-stroke:

b. Four-stroke:

Which one is a two-stroke?

Two-stroke engine

A two-stroke engine, in this case with an

expansion chamber illustrates the effect
of a reflected pressure wave on the fuel
charge. This feature is essential for
maximum charge pressure (volumetric
efficiency) and fuel efficiency.
Four stroke cycle engine

The four strokes:

1. Intake/suction stroke
2. Compression stroke
3. Power/expansion
stroke
4. Exhaust stroke
Four stroke cycle engine
Crank shaft rotation

TDC

BDC

A: Intake
B: Compression
C: Power
D: Exhaust
Engine classified as to:

a. Air cooled – uses cooling fins to

increase the surface area needed to
dissipate heat
b. Liquid cooled -Most liquid-cooled
engines use a mixture of water and
chemicals such as antifreeze and rust
inhibitors. Some antifreezes use no
water at all, instead using a liquid with
different properties, such as propylene
glycol or a combination of propylene
glycol and ethylene glycol.
The advantages of using water cooling over air cooling
include water's higher specific heat capacity, density, and
thermal conductivity. This allows water to transmit heat
over greater distances with much less volumetric flow and
reduced temperature difference.
Engine classified as to:

a. Manual (kick and crank lever)

b. Electric
c. Hydraulic
d. air motor
e. compressed air admission
Engine classified as to:

Different configurations have different advantages and disadvantages in terms of

smoothness, manufacturing cost and shape characteristics. These advantages and
disadvantages make them more suitable for certain vehicles.

• The cylinders are arranged

in a line in a single bank.
INLINE

• The cylinders are arranged

in two banks set at an
V angle to one another.

• The cylinders are arranged

in two banks on opposite
FLAT sides of the engine.
• H engine, two crankshafts.
• W engine. Combination of V
and straight, giving 3 banks, or
two V's intertwined giving 4
banks.
• Delta engines, with three
banks of cylinders and three
crankshafts
• X engine.
• Radial designs, including most:
Rotary engine designs. Mostly
seen on pre-WWII aircraft.

X24 engine Rolls-Royce Exe

Engine classified as to:

a. Overhead Valves (OHV)

b. Overhead Camshaft (OHC)
c. Double Overhead Camshaft (DOHC)