Study Material 12 - Developmental Psychology

Developmental
Psychology
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INDEX
Sl. No.
TOPIC Pg. No.
1. Developmental psychology 2
2. Domains of development 2
3. Periods of development 3
4. Historical foundation 4
5. Prenatal development 5
6. Reflex 11
7. Physical development 13
8. Early social and emotional behaviours 14
9. Teratogens 15
10. Theories of development 17
11. Teratogen 38
12. Language development 40

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
• Developmental Science refers to the study of the phenomenon “womb to tomb” and is a
multidisciplinary enterprise.
• Child Development is the field that involves the scientific study of the patterns of
growth, change and stability that occur from conception through adolescence.
• Child development is part of a larger, interdisciplinary field known as Developmental
Science, which includes all changes we experience throughout the lifespan (Lerner,
2006).
• Child development focuses on human development.
DOMAINS OF DEVELOPMENT
The word “domain” refers to specific aspects of growth and change. Major domains of
development include physical, cognitive, and emotional and social.
a. Physical Development
It is defined as the biological changes that occur in the body and brain
including changes in size and strength, integration of sensory and motor activities and
development of fine and gross motor skills. Physical development in children follows
a directional pattern. Muscles in the body's core, legs and arms develop before those
in the fingers and hands. Children learn how to perform gross (or large) motor skills
such as walking before they learn to perform fine (or small) motor skills such as
drawing. Muscles located at the core of the body become stronger and develop sooner
than those in the feet and hands. Physical development goes from the head to the toes.
b. Cognitive Development
It is defined as the changes in the way we think, understand and reason about
the world. Piaget's stages of cognitive development illustrate a child's growth.
• Stages of Cognitive development:-
1. The Sensorimotor Stage: A period of time between birth and age two during
which an infant's knowledge of the world is limited to his or her sensory
perceptions and motor activities.
2. The Preoperational Stage: A period between ages two and six during which a
child learns to use language.
3. The Concrete Operational Stage: A period between ages seven and eleven
during which children gain a better understanding of mental operations.
4. The Formal Operational Stage: A period between ages twelve to adulthood
when people develop the ability to think about abstract concepts.
c. Socio-Emotional Development
It is defined as the changes in the way we connect to other individuals and
express and understand emotions. The core features of emotional development
include the ability of a child to identify and understand their own feelings, to

accurately read and comprehend emotional states of others, to manage strong
emotions and their expression in a beneficial manner, to regulate their own behavior,
to develop empathy for others, and to establish and maintain relationships. Healthy
social-emotional development for infants and toddlers develops in an interpersonal
context, specifically that of positive ongoing relationships with familiar and nurturing
adults.
PERIODS OF DEVELOPMENT
To divide the flow of time into sensible, manageable parts, Developmentalists break the
life span into six stages.
1. The Prenatal period: from conception to birth.
2. Infancy and Toddlerhood: from birth to 2 years.
3. Early childhood: from 2 to 6 years.
4. Middle childhood: from 6 to 11 years.
5. Adolescence: from 11 to 18 years.
6. Emerging adulthood: from 18 to 25 years.

HISTORICAL FOUNDATION
Philosophies of enlightenment
• 17th century brought new philosophies.
• Emphasized ideals of human dignity and respect.
• John Locke – He viewed the child as a, tabula rasa. ‟ It is a Latin word which means
blank slate”
• According to this idea children begin as nothing at all, their characters are shaped
entirely by experience.
• Locke saw parents as rational tutors who can mould the child in any way as they wish,
through careful instruction and reward for good behaviour.
• He recommended child rearing practices including praise and approval as rewards.
• Opposed physical punishment. Example: beating in school.
• Locke’s philosophy led to change from harshness towards kindness and compassion.
• He regarded development as continuous.
• Adult like behaviours is gradually built up through the warm and consent teaching of
parents.
• His views led to the champion nurture- the power of environment to shape the child.
• Jean-Jacques Rousseau- In 18th century Jean-Jacques Rousseau introduced new
view of childhood.
• He claimed children are not blank slates or empty containers to be filled by adult
instructions.
• Instead, they are noble savages, naturally endowed with a sense of right and wrong
and an innate plan for orderly, healthy growth.
• Rousseau believed that children’s built-in moral sense and unique ways of thinking
and feelings would only be harmed by adult training.
• He has child-centred philosophy.
• In which adult should be receptive to the child’s needs at each of stages infancy,
childhood, late childhood and adolescence
• Maturation is an important concept introduced by Rousseau. Maturation- genetically
determined, naturally unfolding course of growth.
• In his view children determine his own destiny.
• Viewed development as discontinuous, stage wise process
Scientific Beginning
• Charles Darwin- introduced theory emphasizing natural selection and survival of
fittest. He explained that certain species survive in particular parts of the worlds
because they have characteristics fit with or adapt to the environment other species
die off because they are not well suited to the surroundings. He emphasizes on the
adaptive value of physical characteristics and behaviour Darwin explored that prenatal
growth is strikingly similar in many species.
The Normative Period

• 20th century.
• G. Stanley Hall regarded as the founder of child-study movement Developed theories
based on evolutionary perspective.
• According to them development is as maturational process- a genetically determined
series of events that unfold automatically much like a flower
• Normative approach- measures of behaviours are taken in a large number of
individuals and age-related averages are computed to represent typical development.
Hall constructed elaborate questionnaire asking children of different ages almost
everything they could talk about themselves- interest, fears, imaginary playmate,
dreams, friendship etc.
The Mental Testing Movement
Alfred Binet applied normative approach to child development. Binet began with
well-developed theory of intelligence which captures child’s intelligence, thinking,
planning, judgment etc.
James Mark Baldwin: Early Developmental Theory
He believed that children’s understanding of their physical and social worlds develops
through a sequence of stages. It begins with the simplest behaviour pattern as infant and
concluding with adult’s capacity to think abstractly and reflectively. According to him
neither the child nor the environment controlled development.
Mid -20th Century Theories
• Psychoanalytic theory
• Erikson theory
• Behaviour theory
• Social learning theory
• Piaget cognitive developmental theory

PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
• Prenatal development-refers to the process in which a baby develops from a single
cell after conception into an embryo and later a foetus.
• The average length of time for prenatal development to complete is 38 weeks from the
date of conception.
• During this time, a single-celled zygote develops in a series of stages into a full-term
baby. The zygote’s development is based on two principles,
a. Cephalocaudal (head to tail)

b. Proximodistal (near to far)
Primary stages of prenatal development
a. Germinal stage
b. Embryonic stage
c. Foetal stage
a. Germinal stage
• From conception to 2 weeks.

• Conception occurs when the female egg (ovum) is fertilized by a male sperm.
• Under normal circumstances, one egg is released approximately once a month from a
woman's ovary during a process called ovulation. The egg makes its way into a
fallopian tube, a structure that guides the egg away from the ovary toward the uterus.
• For fertilization to occur, sperm ejaculated during sexual intercourse (or introduced
during artificial insemination) in a substance called semen must have made their way
from the vagina into the uterus and subsequently into the fallopian tube where the
ovum has been released. This process can take up to ten hours after ejaculation.
• For fertilization to occur, a sperm must penetrate the tough outer membrane of the egg
called the zona pellucida. When one sperm successfully binds with the zona
pellucida, a series of chemical reactions occurs to allow only that sperm to penetrate.

• Fertilization occurs when the sperm successfully enters the ovum's membrane. The
genetic material of the sperm and egg then combine to form a single cell called a
zygote and the germinal stage of prenatal development commences.
• The zygote soon begins to divide rapidly in a process called cleavage, first into two
identical cells called blastomeres, which further divide to four cells, then into eight,
and so on up to 800 billion cells.
• The group of diving cells begins to move along the fallopian tube toward the uterus.
About sixty hours after fertilization, approximately sixteen cells have formed to what
is called a morula, still enclosed by the zona pellucida; three days after fertilization,
the morula enters the uterus. As cell division continues, a fluid-filled cavity called a
blastocoel forms in the centre of the group of cells, with the outer shell of cells called
trophoblasts and an inner mass of cells called embryoblasts. The zona pellucida
disappears and the morula becomes a blastocyst. At this stage the blastocyst consists
of 200 to 300 cells and is ready for implantation.
• Implantation, the process in which the blastocyst implants into the uterine wall,
occurs approximately 6-7 days after conception, if implantation fails as it is quite
common, the pregnancy terminates.
• The blastocyst first adheres to the wall then moves into the uterine tissue. Some parts
of the blastocyst begin to develop and form placenta, umbilical cord and amniotic
sac with its outer membrane chorion.
• Upon implantation, this multi-cellular organism is called an embryo. Now blood
vessels grow, forming the placenta. The placenta is a structure connected to the
uterus. The placenta has two important functions:
a. Passing oxygen and nutrients from the mother’s blood into the embryo or
foetus
b. Removing waste materials from the embryo or foetus
• Implantation marks the end of the germinal stage and the beginning of the embryonic
stage.

Blastocyst
b. Embryonic stage
• The embryonic stage begins after implantation and lasts until eight weeks after
conception. Soon after implantation, the cells continue to rapidly divide and clusters
of cells begin to take on different functions called differentiation.
• The process of gastrulation leads to the formation of three distinct layers called germ
layers: the ectoderm (outer layer), the mesoderm (middle layer), and the endoderm
(inner layer).
• As the embryo develops, each germ layer differentiates into different tissues and
structures. For example, the ectoderm eventually forms skin, nails, hair, brain,
nervous tissue and cells, nose, sinuses, mouth, anus, tooth enamel, and other tissues.
The mesoderm develops into muscles, bones, heart tissue, lungs, reproductive organs,
lymphatic tissue, and other tissues. The endoderm forms the lining of lungs, bladder,
digestive tract, tongue, tonsils, and other organs.
• The process of differentiation takes place over a period of weeks with different
structures forming simultaneously.
• All the major organs form, and the embryo becomes very fragile. The biggest dangers
are teratogens, which are agents such as viruses, drugs, or radiation that can cause
deformities in an embryo or foetus. Some of the major events that occur during the
embryonic stage are as follows:
▪ Week 3: Beginning development of the brain, heart, blood cells, circulatory

system, spinal cord, and digestive system.
▪ Week 4: Beginning development of bones, facial structures, and limbs
(presence of arm and leg buds); continuing development of the heart (which
begins to beat), brain, and nervous tissue.
▪ Week 5: Beginning development of eyes, nose, kidneys, and lungs; continuing
development of the heart (formation of valves), brain, nervous tissue, and
digestive tract.
▪ Week 6: Beginning development of hands, feet, and digits; continuing
development of brain, heart, and circulation system.
▪ Week 7: Beginning development of hair follicles, nipples, eyelids, and sex
organs (testes or ovaries); first formation of urine in the kidneys and first
evidence of brain waves.
▪ Week 8: Facial features more distinct, internal organs well developed, the
brain can signal for muscles to move, heart development ends, external sex
organs begin to form.

• By the end of the embryonic stage, all essential external and internal structures have
been formed. The embryo is now referred to as a foetus. There are higher chances for
the occurrence of spontaneous abortion (miscarriages) during this stage.
c. Foetal stage
• Prenatal development is most dramatic during the foetal stage.

• When an embryo becomes a foetus at eight weeks, it is approximately 3 centimetres
in length from crown to rump and weighs about 3 grams.
• By the time the foetus is considered full-term at 38 weeks gestation, foetus may be 50
centimetres or 3.3 kilograms.
• Although all of the organ systems were formed during embryonic development, they
continue to develop and grow during the foetal stage. Examples of some of the major
features of foetal development by week are as follows:
▪ Weeks 9–12: The foetus reaches approximately 8 cm in length; the head is

approximately half the size of the foetus. External features such as the face,
neck, eyelids, limbs, digits, and genitals are well formed. The beginnings of
teeth appear, and red blood cells begin to be produced in the liver. The foetus
is able to make a fist.
▪ Weeks 13–15: The foetus reaches approximately 15 cm in length. Fine hair
called lanugo first develops on the head; structures such as the lungs, sweat
glands, muscles, and bones continue to develop. The foetus is able to swallow
and make sucking motions.
▪ Weeks 16–20: The foetus reaches approximately 20 cm in length. Lanugo
begins to cover all skin surfaces, and fat begins to develop under the skin.
Features such as finger and toenails, eyebrows, and eyelashes appear. The
foetus becomes more active, and the mother can sometimes begin to feel foetal
movements at this stage.
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▪ Weeks 21–24: The foetus reaches approximately 28.5 cm in length and
weighs approximately 0.7 kg. Hair grows longer on the head, and the
eyebrows and eye lashes finish forming. The lungs continue to develop with
the formation of air sac (alveoli); the eyes finish developing. A startle reflex
develops at this time.
▪ Weeks 25–28: The foetus reaches approximately 38 cm in length and weighs
approximately 1.2 kg. The next few weeks mark a period of rapid brain and
nervous system development. The foetus gains greater control over
movements such as opening and closing eyelids and certain body functions.
The lungs have developed sufficiently that air breathing is possible.
▪ Weeks 29–32: The foetus reaches approximately 38–43 cm in length and
weighs approximately 2 kg. Fat deposits become more pronounced under the
skin. The lungs remain immature but breathing movements begin. The foetus’s
bones are developed but not yet hardened.
▪ Weeks 33–36: The foetus reaches approximately 41–48 cm in length and
weighs 2.6–3.0 kg. Body fat continues to increase, lanugo begins to disappear,
and fingernails are fully grown. The foetus has gained a high degree of control
over body functions.
▪ Weeks 36–38: The foetus reaches 48–53 cm in length is considered to be full-
term by the end of this period. Lanugo has mostly disappeared and is replaced
with thicker hair on the head. Fingernails have grown past the tips of the
fingers. In a healthy foetus, all organ systems are functioning.
REFLEX
• A reflex is an inborn, automatic response to a particular form of stimulations.

• Reflexes are the neonate’s most obvious organized patterns of behaviour.
• Normally developing new born should respond to certain stimuli with these reflexes.
• A reflex is made possible by neural pathways called reflex arcs which can act on an
impulse before that impulse reaches the brain.
a) Eye blink-The first and most reliable component of the startle reflex in humans. The
blink reflex is an involuntary blinking of the eyelids elicited when the cornea is
stimulated by touch, bright light, loud sound, or other peripheral stimuli.
b) Rooting-Primitive reflexes are reflexes action originating. In the central nervous
system that are exhibited by normal infants. These reflexes are suppressed by the
development of the frontal lobe as a child transitions normally into child
development.
▪ Stimulation-stroke cheek near corner of mouth

▪ Response – head turns towards source of stimulation
▪ Age of disappearance- 3 weeks (becomes voluntary head turning at this time)
▪ Function- helps infants find the nipple
c) Sucking-The sucking reflex is probably one of the most important reflexes in new
born. It is paired with the rooting reflex, in which a new born searches for a food
source.
▪ Stimulation- place finger in infant’s mouth

▪ Response- infant sucks finger rhythmically
▪ Age of disappearance- replaced by voluntary sucking after 4 months
▪ Function- permits feeding
d) Swimming- Infant swimming is the phenomenon of human babies and toddlers

reflexively moving themselves through water and changing their rate of respiration
and heart rate in response to being submerged. The slowing rate of heart rate and
breathing is called the bradycardic response.it is not true that babies are born with the
ability to swim, though they have reflexes that make it look like they are
▪ Stimulation- occurs when infants face down in pool of water

▪ Response- baby gaddles and kicks in swimming motion
▪ Age of disappearance- 4-6 month
▪ Function- helps infant survive if dropped into water
e) Moro- the Moro reflex is an infantile reflex that develops between 28-32 weeks of
gestation and disappears between 3-6 months of age. It is a response to a sudden loss
of support and involves three distinct components
▪ Spreading out the arm

▪ Pulling the arms
▪ crying
• Stimulation- hold infant horizontally on back and let head drop slightly, or
produce a sudden loud sound against surface supporting infant.
• Response- infant makes an “embracing” motion by arching back extending legs,
throwing arms outward, and then bringing arms in toward the body’
• Age of disappearance – 6 months
• Function- in humans evolutionary past, may have helped infant cling to mother
f) Palmar grasp- Palmar grasp reflex is a primitive reflex found in infants of humans
and most primates. When an object is placed in an infant’s hand and palm of the child
is stroked, the fingers will close reflexively, as the object is grasped via palmar grasp.
▪ Stimulation- place finger in infants’ hands and press against palm

▪ Response- infant spontaneously grasps finger
▪ Function- prepares infants for infants for voluntary grasping
g) Tonic neck- The asymmetrical tonic neck reflex is a primitive reflex found in new
born humans that normally vanishes around 4 months of age. It is also known as the
“fencing reflex” because of the characteristic position of the infants arms and head,
which resembles that of a classically trained fencer
▪ Stimulation-turn baby’s head to one side while infants is lying awake on back
▪ Response- infant lies in a “fencing position”.one arm is extended in front of
eyes on side to which head is turned, other arm is flexed.
▪ Age of disappearance- 4 month
▪ Functions- may prepare infants for voluntary reaching
h) Stepping- The stepping reflex in new born is also known as the “walking “or
“dancing reflex”. This reflex can be seen when a baby is held upright or when the
baby’s feet are touching the ground.
▪ Stimulation- hold infants’ underarms, and permit bare feet to touch a flat
surface
▪ Response- infants lifts one foot after another in stepping response
▪ Age of disappearance- 2 months in infants who gain weight quickly sustained
in lighter infants
▪ Function- prepares infants for voluntary walking
i) Babinski-Babinski reflex is one of the normal reflexes in infants. The Babinski reflex
occurs after the sole of the foot has been firmly stroked. When the big toe bends up
and back toward the top of the foot while the other four toes spread out from one
another, it’s called the Babinski sign
▪ Stimulation- stroke sole of foot from toe toward heel

▪ Response – toes fan out and curl as foot twists in
▪ function- unknown
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
PHYSICAL GROWTH
• Two growth patterns describe the changes in body proportion: -
1. Cephalocaudal trend
2. Proximodistal trend
• In the prenatal period, the head, chest and trunk grow first, then the arms and legs,
finally the hands and feet.
• During infancy and childhood, the arms and legs continue to grow somewhat ahead of
the hands and feet.
• During puberty growth proceeds in the reverse direction. The hands, legs and feet
accelerate first, followed by the torso, which accounts for most of the adolescent
height gain.
MOTOR DEVELOPMENT
a. Sequence of Motor Development
• Gross Motor Development refers to control over actions that help infants get around
in environment, such as crawling, standing and walking.
• Fine Motor Development involves small movements, such as reaching and grasping.
• Reaching and Grasping are the two main fine motor skills of infancy. Among these
reaching play the greatest role in infant cognitive development.
• Prereaching is the poorly coordinated swipes made by the newborns towards an object
in front of them. Prereaching drops out around 7 weeks of age, when babies improve
in eye movements involved in tracking and fixating objects, which are essential for
accurate reaching.
▪ Reaching is largely controlled by proprioception-our sense of movement and

location in space, arising from stimuli within the body.
▪ Reaching improves as depth perception advances and as infants gain greater
control of body posture and hand movements.
b. Development of Grasping
• Once infants can reach, they modify their grasp. The new-borns grasp reflex is
replaced by:
a. Ulnar grasp- a clumsy motion in which the babies finger close against the
palm.
b. Pincer grasp- infants use the thumb and index fingers in a well-co-ordinated
way
EARLY SOCIAL & EMOTIONAL BEHAVIOR
Emotional expressions
• Vocalization
• Body movements
• Facial expressions
• Examples: Infants do show signs of fear- drawing back and refusing to crawl. Blind
infants’ express emotions through finger movements, parents become more interactive
• Babies’ earliest emotional life consists of little more than two global arousal states :
a. Attraction to pleasant stimulation

b. Withdrawal from unpleasant stimulation
• Basic emotions are universal in humans and other primates and have a long
evolutionary history of promoting survival.
• The dynamic system perspective helps us to understand how this happens
• Children coordinate separate skills into more effective, emotionally expressive system
as the central nervous system develops and the child's goals and experiences change.
• Sensitive, contingent caregiver communication, in which parents selectively mirror
aspects of baby's diffuse emotional behavior, help infants construct emotional
expressions that more closely resemble those of adults.
• With age, face, gaze, voice, and posture start to form organized patterns that vary
meaning fully with environmental events.
• Happiness- between 6 to 10 weeks, the parent's communication evokes a broad grin
called the social smile. Social smiling becomes better organized and stable babies
learn to use it to evoke and sustain pleasurable face-to-face interaction.
• Anger and Sadness- Newborn babies respond with generalized distress to a variety
of unpleasant experiences, including: hunger, painful medical procedures, changes
in body temperature, and too much or too little stimulation. From 4-6 months into
the second year, angry expressions increase in frequency and intensity.
• Sadness-Sadness also occur in response to pain, removal of an object, and brief
separation, they are less common than anger. Sadness occurs when infants are
deprived of a familiar, loving caregiver or when caregiver -infant communication is
seriously disrupted.
• Fear-Fear rises during the second half of the first year into the second year. Infant's
most frequent expression of fear is to unfamiliar adults, a response called stranger
anxiety. Factors depending fear-Temperament, past experiences with strangers,
Current situation. Infants use the familiar caregiver as a secure base to explore,
venturing into the environment and then returning for emotional support.
TERATOGENS
• Substances that may produce physical or functional defects in the human embryo or
fetus after the pregnant woman is exposed
• Derived from the Greek word “Teratos”, meaning ‘monster’.
• The study of abnormalities of physiological development is called teratology.
Effects of teratogens
• Depending on the amount of teratogenic substance, duration of exposure and stage of

development of the embryo or fetus, the effect of the teratogen may vary.
• They cause physical malformations, problems in emotional and behavioral
development, decreased IQ in the child as well as complications in pregnancies like
pre term labor, spontaneous abortions or miscarriages.
Classifications
Teratogens are classified into four categories:
a. Physical agents
b. Metabolic conditions
c. Drugs
d. Chemicals
Physical agents
▪ Ionizing radiation can result in spontaneous abortion, growth restriction, and mental
retardation. The risk of cancer is increased regardless of the dose. When an exposure
to ionizing radiation occurs, the total foetal radiation dose should be estimated and the
mother counselled about the potential risks so that she can make informed decisions
about her pregnancy management.
▪ Hyperthermia: Hyperthermia interferes with protein synthesis which can entail
Membrane disruption, cell death, vascular disruption etc. This can lead to severe
foetal malformations or death.
Metabolic conditions
▪ Metabolic conditions are abnormalities in the chemical process of producing energy

from food, and thereby affect the development and function of the body.
▪ Malnutrition, diabetes, thyroid conditions
▪ Malnutrition in pregnant women can lead to malnourishment in fetus.
▪ Hypoglycemia interferes with proteins in developing fetal heart.
▪ Excessive blood sugar: causes neural tube defects, birth defects of brain and spinal
cord, release of free radicals.
▪ Thyroid disorders can cause miscarriages, placental abruption, pre term labor and low
IQ
Drugs and chemicals
• Drugs that can act as teratogens include:
▪ ACE(angiotensin converting enzyme) inhibitors :

▪ Acne medication isotretinoin
▪ Antibiotics tetracycline, doxycycline, streptomycin
▪ Anticonvulsants
▪ Anti-depressant drugs
▪ Anti-metabolite drugs
▪ Anti-thyroid drugs
▪ Cocaine
▪ Diethylstilboestrol (DES)
▪ Thalidomide etc.
THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT
a. Psychoanalytic theories
Psychoanalysis was founded by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). Freud believed that
people could be cured by making conscious their unconscious thoughts and motivations,
thus gaining insight.
• Perhaps Freud's single most enduring and important idea was that the human psyche
(personality) has more than one aspect.
• Freud's personality theory (1923) saw the psyche structured into three parts (i.e., tripartite), the
id, ego and superego, all developing at different stages in our lives.
• Id: The id is the primitive and instinctive component of personality. It consists of all
the inherited (i.e. biological) components of personality present at birth, including the
sex (life) instinct – Eros (which contains the libido), and the aggressive (death)
instinct - Thanatos.
• Ego: The ego develops to mediate between the unrealistic id and the external real
world. It is the decision-making component of personality. Ideally, the ego works by
reason, whereas the id is chaotic and unreasonable.
• Superego: The superego incorporates the values and morals of society which are
learned from one's parents and others. It develops around the age of 3 – 5 years during
the phallic stage of psychosexual development.
Psychosexual stages of development
1. Oral stage (birth – 1 year)
• In the first stage of personality development, the libido is cantered in a baby's
mouth.
• It gets much satisfaction from putting all sorts of things in its mouth to satisfy the
libido, and thus its id demands.
• Which at this stage in life are oral, or mouth orientated, such as sucking, biting,
and breastfeeding.
• Freud said oral stimulation could lead to an oral fixation in later life.
• We see oral personalities all around us such as smokers, nail-biters, finger-
chewers, and thumb suckers.
• Oral personalities engage in such oral behaviours, particularly when under stress.
2. Anal stage (1-3 years)

• The libido now becomes focused on the anus, and the child derives great pleasure
from defecating. The child is now fully aware that they are a person in their own
right and that their wishes can bring them into conflict with the demands of the
outside world (i.e., their ego has developed).
• Freud believed that this type of conflict tends to come to a head in potty training,
in which adults impose restrictions on when and where the child can
defecate. The nature of this first conflict with authority can determine the child's
future relationship with all forms of authority.
• Early or harsh potty training can lead to the child becoming an anal-retentive
personality who hates mess, is obsessively tidy, punctual and respectful of
authority. They can be stubborn and tight-fisted with their cash and possessions.
• The anal expulsive, on the other hand, underwent a liberal toilet-training regime
during the anal stage.
• In adulthood, the anal expulsive is the person who wants to share things with
you. They like giving things away. An anal-expulsive personality is also messy,
disorganized and rebellious.
3. Phallic stage (3-6 years)

• Sensitivity now becomes concentrated in the genitals.
• The child becomes aware of anatomical sex differences, which sets in motion the
conflict between erotic attraction, resentment, rivalry, jealousy and fear which
Freud called the Oedipus complex (in boys) and the Electra complex (in girls).
• This is resolved through the process of identification, which involves the child
adopting the characteristics of the same sex parent.
• Freud considered that the child's identification with the same-sex parent is the
successful outcome of the complex and that unsuccessful outcome of the complex
might lead to neurosis, paedophilia, and homosexuality.
4. Latency stage (6-11 years)

• No further psychosexual development takes place during this stage (latent means
hidden). The libido is dormant.
• Freud thought that most sexual impulses are repressed during the latent stage, and
sexual energy can be sublimated towards school work, hobbies, and friendships.
• Much of the child's energy is channelled into developing new skills and acquiring
new knowledge, and play becomes largely confined to other children of the same
gender.
5. Genital stage (puberty to adult)

• This is the last stage of Freud's psychosexual theory of personality development
and begins in puberty.
• It is a time of adolescent sexual experimentation, the successful resolution of
which is settling down in a loving one-to-one relationship with another person in
our 20's.
• Sexual instinct is directed to heterosexual pleasure, rather than self-pleasure like
during the phallic stage.
• For Freud, the proper outlet of the sexual instinct in adults was through
heterosexual intercourse.
• Fixation and conflict may prevent this with the consequence that sexual
perversions may develop.
• For example, fixation at the oral stage may result in a person gaining sexual
pleasure primarily from kissing and oral sex, rather than sexual intercourse.
b. Psycho social theory
• Erik Erikson extended Freud's psychosexual stages to include psychosocial learning
and some ideas from cultural anthropology.
• Erikson maintained that personality develops in a predetermined order through eight
stages of psychosocial development, from infancy to adulthood.
• During each stage, the person experiences a psychosocial crisis which could have a
positive or negative outcome for personality development.
Erikson’s psychosocial developmental stages
1. Trust vs mistrust(birth-1year)
• During this stage, the infant is uncertain about the world in which they live, and
looks towards their primary caregiver for stability and consistency of care.
• If the care the infant receives is consistent, predictable and reliable, they will
develop a sense of trust which will carry with them to other relationships, and they
will be able to feel secure even when threatened.
• If these needs are not consistently met, mistrust, and anxiety may develop.
• Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of hope.
2. Autonomy vs shame and doubt (1-3 years)
• According to Erikson, children at this stage are focused on developing a sense of
personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence.
• If children in this stage are encouraged and supported in their increased
independence, they become more confident and secure in their own ability to
survive in the world.
• If children are criticized, overly controlled, or not given the opportunity to assert
themselves, they begin to feel inadequate in their ability to survive, and may then
become overly dependent upon others, lack of self-esteem, and feel a sense of
shame or doubt in their abilities.
• Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of will
3. Initiative vs guilt (3-5 years)
• During this period the primary feature involves the child regularly interacting with
other children at school.
• Children begin to plan activities, make up games, and initiate activities with
others.
• It is at this stage that the child will begin to ask many questions as his thirst for
knowledge grows. If the parents treat the child’s questions as trivial, a nuisance or
embarrassing or other aspects of their behaviour as threatening then the child may
have feelings of guilt for “being a nuisance”.
• A healthy balance between initiative and guilt is important. Success in this stage
will lead to the virtue of purpose, while failure results in a sense of guilt.
4. Industry vs inferiority (5-12 years)
• It is at this stage that the child’s peer group will gain greater significance and will
become a major source of the child’s self-esteem.
• The child now feels the need to win approval by demonstrating specific
competencies that are valued by society and begin to develop a sense of pride in
their accomplishments.
• If the child cannot develop the specific skill, they feel society is demanding then
they may develop a sense of inferiority.
• Some failure may be necessary so that the child can develop some modesty.
Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of competence.
5. Identity vs role confusion (12- 18 years)
• During this stage, adolescents search for a sense of self and personal identity,
through an intense exploration of personal values, beliefs, and goals.
• This is a major stage of development where the child has to learn the role he will
occupy as an adult.
• It is during this stage that the adolescent will re-examine his identity and try to
find out exactly who he or she is. Erikson suggests that two identities are
involved: the sexual and the occupational.
• Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of fidelity.

6. Intimacy vs isolation (18- 40 years)
• During this period, we begin to share ourselves more intimately with others.
• We explore relationships leading toward longer-term commitments with someone
other than a family member.
• Successful completion of this stage can result in happy relationships and a sense
of commitment, safety, and care within a relationship.
• Avoiding intimacy, fearing commitment and relationships can lead to isolation,
loneliness, and sometimes depression. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue
of love.
7. Generativity vs stagnation (40- 65 years)
• People experience a need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often
having mentees or creating positive changes that will benefit other people
• Success leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results
in shallow involvement in the world.
• By failing to find a way to contribute, we become stagnant and feel unproductive.
• These individuals may feel disconnected or uninvolved with their community and
with society as a whole. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of care.
8. Integrity vs despair (65 – till death)
• It is during this time that we contemplate our accomplishments and can develop
integrity if we see ourselves as leading a successful life.
• As we grow older (65+ yrs) and become senior citizens, we tend to slow down our
productivity and explore life as a retired person.
• Success in this stage will lead to the virtue is wisdom
c. Cognitive approaches to child development
• Piaget's (1936) theory of cognitive development explains how a child constructs a
mental model of the world (cognitive constructivism).
• He was the first psychologist to make a systematic study of cognitive development.
• Schema: A schema describes both the mental and physical actions involved in
understanding and knowing. Schemas are categories of knowledge that help us to
interpret and understand the world.
• Cognitive adaptation: pertains to interaction between the organism and the
environment. Adaptation involves two complementary processes: assimilation and
accommodation.
1. Assimilation
The process of taking in new information into our already existing schemas is
known as assimilation. The process is somewhat subjective because we tend to
modify experiences and information slightly to fit in with our pre-existing beliefs.
2. Accommodation
Another part of adaptation involves changing or altering our existing schemas
in light of new information, a process known as accommodation. Accommodation
involves modifying existing schemas, or ideas, as a result of new information or
new experiences. New schemas may also be developed during this process.
• Equilibrium is the search for “balance” between self and the world, and involves the
matching of the child's adaptive functioning to situational demands.
Piaget’s stages of cognitive development
1. Sensory motor (roughly birth – 2 years)
• Infants understand the world in terms of their overt, physical actions on that
world.
• Physical skills include crawling, grasping, and pulling, as well as general physical
growth.
• However, as babies develop cognitive skills, they start thinking about their
behaviours and reacting to different stimuli such as noises, movement, and
emotions.
• Other feature involve:
▪ Develop concept of causality
▪ Object permanence
▪ After a child has mastered the concept of object permanence, the emergence
of "directed groping" begins to take place
• The sensorimotor stage can be divided into six separate sub-stages that are
characterized by the development of a new skill:
a) Reflexes (0-1 month)
b) Primary Circular Reactions (1-4 months)
c) Secondary Circular Reactions (4-8 months)
d) Coordination of Reactions (8-12 months)
e) Tertiary Circular Reactions (12-18 months)
f) Early Representational Thought (18-24 months)
2. Preoperational period (roughly 2 to 7 years)

• No longer do children simply make perceptual and motor adjustments to objects
and events.
• They can now use symbols (mental images, words, gestures) to represent these
objects and events. They use these symbols in an increasingly organized and
logical fashion.
• Main features are:
a) Egocentrism
Egocentrism refers to the child's inability to see a situation from
another person's point of view. Children’s thoughts and communications are
typically egocentric (i.e., about themselves). Egocentric child assumes that
other people see, hear, and feel exactly the same as the child does. At the
beginning of this stage, you often find children engaging in parallel play. That
is to say they often play in the same room as other children but they play next
to others rather than with them.
b) Symbolic Representation
This is the ability to make one thing - a word or an object - stand for
something other than itself. Language is perhaps the most obvious form of
symbolism that young children display. He believed cognitive development
promotes language development, not vice versa.
c) Symbolic play
As the pre-operational stage develops egocentrism declines and
children begin to enjoy the participation of another child in their games and
“let’s pretend “play becomes more important
d) Animistic thinking
This is the belief that inanimate objects (such as toys and teddy bears)
have human feelings and intentions. By animism Piaget (1929) meant that for
the pre-operational child the world of nature is alive, conscious and has a
purpose.
e) Artificialism
This is the belief that certain aspects of the environment are
manufactured by people (e.g., clouds in the sky).
f) Irreversibility
This is the inability the reverse the direction of a sequence of events to
their starting point.
g) Centration
Centration is the tendency to focus on only one aspect of a situation at
one time. When a child can focus on more than one aspect of a situation at the
same time, they have the ability to decentre. During this stage children have
difficulties thinking about more than one aspect of any situation at the same
time; and they have trouble decentring in social situation just as they do in
non-social contexts.
3. Concrete operational period (roughly 7 to 11 years)
• Children acquire certain logical structures that allow them to perform various
mental operations, which are internalized actions that can be reversed
• One of the most important developments in this stage is an understanding
of reversibility or awareness that actions can be reversed
• Another key development at this stage is the understanding that when something
changes in shape or appearance it is still the same, a concept known
as conservation. Kids at this stage understand that if you break a candy bar up
into smaller pieces it is still the same amount at when the candy was whole.
• The concrete operational stage is also marked by decreases in egocentrism.
• One of the key characteristics of the concrete-operational stage is the ability to
focus on many parts of a problem. They are able to engage in what is known as
"decentration."
• Children gain the abilities of conservation (number, area, volume, orientation),
reversibility, seriation, transitivity and class inclusion
• However, although children can solve problems in a logical fashion, they are
typically not able to think abstractly or hypothetically.
4. Formal operational period (roughly 11 to 15 years)
• Mental operations are no longer limited to concrete objects; they can be applied to
purely verbal or logical statements, to the possible as well as the real, to the future
as well as the present.
• 2 main features of formal operational:
a) Hypothetico Deductive Reasoning

Hypothetico deductive reasoning is the ability to think scientifically
through generating predictions, or hypotheses, about the world to answer
questions. The individual will approach problems in a systematic and
organised manner, rather than through trial-and-error.
b) Abstract Thought
Concrete operations are carried out on things whereas formal
operations are carried out on ideas. The individual can think about
hypothetical and abstract concepts they have yet to experience. Abstract
thought is important for planning regarding the future.
d. Sociocultural theory by Lev Semyonovitch Vygotsky(1896 -1934)

• Stresses the fundamental role of social interaction and culture in the development of
cognition.
• Vygotsky brought about a sociocultural approach to cognitive development theory.
• 3 major components of socio-cultural theory
▪ More knowledgeable other (MKO)
▪ Zone of proximal Development (ZPD)
▪ Role of language in cognitive development
More knowledgeable person:
Person who has more knowledge or skill regarding a task, it can be a parent or
teacher, or more skilled peer, computer. Assist learner to do a task which is beyond
his or her reach. Provide verbal instruction, model behaviour, guides, give hints,
asking guiding questions.
Zone of proximal development
A range of tasks too difficult for the child to do alone but possible with the
help of adults and more skilled peers.
Vygotsky and the language

Vygotsky believed that language develops from social interactions, for
communication purposes. Vygotsky viewed language as man’s greatest tool, a
means for communicating with the outside world. According to him, the language has
two major roles in the areas of development
▪ It is the means by which adults transmit information to children
▪ It is a very powerful tool of intellectual adaptation
e. System theory
• Urie Bronfenbrenner – Bio ecological theory/ Ecological Theory
• Ecological system theory views the child as developing with in a complex system of
relationships affected by multiple levels of the surrounding environment.
• Because the child's biologically influenced dispositions join with environmental
forces to mold development, Bronfenbrenner recently characterized his perceptive as
a bioecological model
1. The Microsystem the innermost level of the environment, the microsystem,
consist of activities, and interactions patterns in the child's immediate
surroundings. Bronfenbrenner emphasized that to understand child development at
this level, we must keep in mind that all relationships are bidirectional: Adults,
affect children’s behavior, but children’s biologically and socially influenced
characteristics – their physical attributes, personalities and capacities –also affect
adults’ behavior. When these reciprocal interactions occur often over time, they
have an enduring impact on development.
2. The Mesosystem the second level of Bronfenbrenner’s model, the mesosystem,
encompasses connections between microsystems, such as home, school,
neighborhood, and child care center. Each relationship is more likely to support
development when there is links.in the form of visits and cooperative exchanges
of information, between home and child care. Family – neighborhood connections
are especially for economically disadvantaged children.
3. The Exosystem: the exosystem consist of social settings that do not contain
children but that nevertheless affect children's experiences in immediate setting.
There can be formal organizations, such as parent’s work places. For Example,
parents work settings can support child rearing and, indirectly, enhance
development through flexible work schedules, paid maternity and paternity leave,
and sick leave for parents whose children are ill. Exosystem support also can be
informal, such as parents’ social networks –friends and extended –family
members who provide advice, companionship, end even financial assistance.
4. The Macrosystem the outermost level of Bronfenbrenner’s model, the
macrosystem, consists of cultural values, laws, customs, and resources. The
priority that the macrosystem gives to children’s needs affect the support they
receive at inner levels of the environment.
Example: children in war torn areas will experience a different kind of
development than children in peaceful environments.
5. Bronfenbrenner called the temporal dimension of his model the Chronosystem.
Changes in life events can be imposed on the child, which demonstrate the
influence of both change and constancy in the children’s environment. The
chronosystem may include change in family structure, address, parent’s
employment status, as well as immense society changes such as economic cycles
and wars.
Biological Theory
• Stanley Hall & Arnold Gesell
• G.Stanley Hall was one of the most influential psychologists of early 20th century
and he was regarded as the founder of child-study movement.
• Inspired by Darwin’s work hall and his well-known student Arnold Gesell
Developed theories based on evolutionary perspective.
• According to then development is as maturational process- a genetically
determined series of events that unfold automatically much like a flower
• They launched the Normative approach- measures of behaviours are taken in a
large number of individuals and age-related averages are computed to represent
typical development.
• Using this Hall constructed elaborate questionnaire asking children of different
ages almost everything they could tell about themselves- interest, fears, imaginary
playmate, dreams, friendship etc.
• Gesell was among the first to make knowledge about child development
meaningful by parents by informing them to expect at each age.
f. Konrad Lorenz: Ethology Theory

• Ethology is concerned with the adaptive or survival, value of behaviour and its
evolutionary history. Two European zoologists, Konrad Lorenz and Niko
Tinbergen laid its modern foundation.
• They came with imprinting, by observing animals in their natural habitat having
behaviours that promote survival. That is the early following behaviours of certain
baby birds such as geese, which ensures that the young will stay close to the mother
and be fed and protected from danger. Imprinting takes place during an early
restricted period of development. If the mother goose is absent during this time but an
object resembling her in important features is present, young goslings may imprint on
it instead.
• Critical period: it refers to a limited time during which a child is biologically
prepared to acquire certain adaptive behaviours but needs the support of an
appropriately stimulating environment.
• Later it is discovered that sensitive period applies better to human development than
strict notion of a critical period. A sensitive period is a time that is optimal for certain
capacities to emerge because the individual is especially responsive to environmental
influence. However, its boundaries are less well defined than those of a critical period.
Development can occur later, but it is hard to induce.
g. Attachment Theory
• Attachment is a strong, affectionate tie we have with special people in our lives that
lead us to experience pleasure and joy when we interact with them and to be
confronted by their nearness in times of stress.
1. Harry Harlow Experiment

• Using methods of isolation and maternal deprivation, Harlow showed the impact
of contact comfort on primate development.
• Harlow took infant monkeys from their biological mothers and gave them two
inanimate surrogate mothers: one was a simple construction of wire and wood,
and the second was covered in foam rubber and soft terry cloth. The infants were
assigned to one of two conditions. In the first, the wire mother had a milk bottle
and the cloth mother did not; in the second, the cloth mother had the food while
the wire mother had none.
• In both conditions, Harlow found that the infant monkeys spent significantly more
time with the terry cloth mother than they did with the wire mother. When only
the wire mother had food, the babies came to the wire mother to feed and
immediately returned to cling to the cloth surrogate.
• Harlow’s work showed that infants also turned to inanimate surrogate mothers for
comfort when they were faced with new and scary situations. When placed in a
novel environment with a surrogate mother, infant monkeys would explore the
area, run back to the surrogate mother when startled, and then venture out to
explore again.
2. John Bowlby
• Ethological theory of attachment, which recognizes the infant’s emotional tie to

the caregiver as an evolved response that promotes survival. John Bowlby applied
this idea to the infant- caregiver bond.
• Bowlby was inspired by the Konrad Lorenz study of imprinting. According to
Bowlby the infant’s relationship with the parent begins as a set of innate signals
that call the adult to the baby’s side. Over time a true affectionate bond forms,
supported by new emotional and cognitive capacities as well as by a history of
warm sensitive care.
• Attachment develops in 4 phases.
a) Pre attachment phase (birth – 6 weeks): built in signals – grasping, smiling,
crying and gazing into the adult’s eyes- help bring new born babies into close
contact with other humans. Babies of this age recognize their mother’s smell,
voice and face. But they are not attached yet.
b) “Attachment in the making phase” (6 weeks- 6 to 8 months) - here the
infant responds differently to familiar caregiver than to a stranger. As infant
learn that their actions affect the behaviour of those around them, a sense of
trust develop, an expectation that the caregiver will respond when signalled.
c) “clear cut” attachment phase (6 to 8 months- 18 months to 2 year) -
attachment to the familiar caregiver is evident, show separation anxiety –
becoming upset when their trusted caregiver leaves. Besides protesting their
parent’s departure, older infants and toddlers try hard to maintain her
presence. They approach, follow, and climb on her in preference to others, and
they use familiar caregiver as a secure base from which to explore.
d) Formation of the reciprocal relationship (18 months- 2 years)- with the
growth in representation and language enables toddlers understand some of the
factors influence the parents coming and going and to predict the return. Now
children use requests and persuasion to alter their goals.
• After these 4 phases, children construct an enduring affectionate tie that they can
use as a secure base in the parent’s absence. This image serves as an internal
working model or set of expectations about the availability of attachment figures,
their likelihood of providing support during time of stress and the self’s
interaction with those figures. The internal working model becomes a vital part of
personality, serving as a guide for all future close relationships.
3. Measuring the security of attachment- Mary Ainsworth
• A widely used laboratory technique for assessing the quality of attachment

between 1 and 2 years of age is the strange situation.
• In designing it, Mary Ainsworth and her colleagues reasoned that securely
attached infants and toddlers should use the parent as a secure base from which to
explore in an unfamiliar playroom.
• In addition when the parent leaves, an unfamiliar adult should be less comforting
than the parent.
• The strange situation takes the baby through eight short episodes in which briefs
separations from and reunions with the caregiver occur.
• Observing infant’s responses to these episodes, researchers identified a secured
attachment pattern and three patterns of insecurity.
a) Secure attachment: these infants use the parent as a secure base. When
separated they may or may not cry, but if they do, it is because the parent is
absent and they prefer her to the stranger. When the parents return, they
actively seek contact, and their crying is reduced immediately.
b) Avoidant Attachment: these infants seem unresponsive to the parent when
she is present. When she leaves, they usually are not distressed, and they react
to the stranger in much the same way as to the parent. During reunion, they
avoid or are slow to greet the parent, and when picked up, they often fail to
cling.
c) Resistant attachment: Before separation, these infants seek closeness to the
parent and often fail to explore. When the parents leave, they are usually
distressed, and on her return they combine clinginess with angry, resistive
behaviour, struggling when held and sometimes hitting and pushing. Many
continue to cry and cling after being picked up and cannot be comforted
easily.
d) Disorganized/ disoriented attachment: this pattern reflects the greatest
insecurity. At reunion, these infants show confused, contradictory behaviours-
for example, looking away while the parent is holding them or approaching
the parent with flat, depressed emotion. Most display a dazed facial
expression, and a few cry out unexpectedly after having calmed down or
display odd, frozen postures.
h. Behavioural and social learning theory
• The origins of behaviorist learning theories may be traced backed to the late 1800's
and early 1900's with the formulation of "associationistic" principles of learning.
• The general goal was to derive elementary laws of learning and behavior that may
then be extended to explain more complex situations.
• Inferences were tied closely to observed behavior in "lower organisms" with the belief
that the laws of learning were universal and that work with laboratory animals could
be extrapolated to humans.
• Several types of learning exist. The most basic form is associative learning, i.e.,
making a new association between events in the environment. There are two forms of
associative learning: classical conditioning (made famous by Ivan Pavlov’s
experiments with dogs) and operant conditioning
1. Classical conditioning- Ivan Pavlov
• Classical conditioning is a reflexive or automatic type of learning in which a stimulus

acquires the capacity to evoke a response that was originally evoked by another
stimulus.
• Pavlov noticed that dogs salivated not only to food, but often to a variety of other
stimuli, such as the sight of a trainer who brought the food. He called this response a
learned reflex that is established through the association between an appropriate
stimulus (food) and an inappropriate one (the trainer).
• In other words, a relatively neutral stimulus is associated with something that causes
a response until the neutral stimulus also causes the response. This lead to an
extended research program now known as classical conditioning.
• According to the principle of classical conditioning, an unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
biologically and involuntarily elicits an unconditioned response (UCR). For example,
the site of food (UCS) elicits salivation (UCR). Then, as a conditioned stimulus
(trainer) becomes associated with the unconditioned stimulus (food), it (the trainer)
acquires the ability to elicit the same response (salivation).
• Key terms to be remembered
▪ Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): The natural stimulus that elicits a natural

response. In Pavlov’s experiment, the meat powder was the UCS.
▪ Unconditioned response (UCR): The natural response elicited to the natural
stimulus. In Pavlov’s experiment, the salivation was the UCR.
▪ Conditioned stimulus (CS): The neutral stimulus that does not naturally elicit
the target response, but may do so after being associated with the UCS for
number of times. In Pavlov’s experiment, the light or the sound of the bell was
the CS.
▪ Conditioned response (CR): The target response similar to the UCR that
originally occurred to the UCS only, but after conditioning occurred to CS,
even in absence of the UCS. In Pavlov’s experiment, the salivation that
occurred in response to the light or bell was the CR. You must remember here
that the UCR and the CR are similar but not the same
▪ Reinforcement: You know that you can elicit a conditioned response by the
pairing of CS and UCS. Since UCS (meat powder) comes later than CS (bell),
the presentation of CS alone elicits salivation. But you need to give the dog
the UCS consistently after the bell. So here meat powder serves as the
reinforcer, as it strengthens the bond between the CS and the UCR (salivation
in this case).
▪ Extinction: In the classical conditioning paradigm, when a conditioned
stimulus ceases to be paired with an unconditioned stimulus for a number of
times the occurrences of a conditioned response decrease or disappear. This is
known as extinction.
▪ Spontaneous recovery: In the classical conditioning paradigm, spontaneous
recovery is the sudden reappearance of the conditioned response following a
rest period after extinction.
▪ Stimulus generalization: In classical conditioning paradigm, stimulus
generalization is the tendency of the conditioned response to occur to stimulus
similar to the conditioned stimulus.
▪ Stimulus Discrimination: In classical conditioning paradigm, discrimination
refers to the condition where an organism learns to produce a conditioned
response to one stimulus but not to another similar stimulus, as the latter has
been systematically kept non-reinforced.
▪ Counter conditioning: Counter conditioning is a replacement of an
undesirable conditioned response by a desirable one, by changing the
association of conditioned and unconditioned stimulus.
▪ Systematic desensitization: A therapeutic technique based on classical
conditioning. The client is exposed to the phobic object or its image in graded
stages, starting from a point where she is fully relaxed, and then guided
progressively toward staying relaxed even in situations where she experienced
intense fear.
▪ Aversion therapy: A therapeutic technique used to modify undesirable habits.
The client’s real or imagined undesirable behavior is associated with an
aversive or painful stimulus. It is expected that after repeated pairing the
aversive response would be generated by the undesirable habit itself.
2. J. B. Watson:
• Behaviourism, according to Watson, was the science of observable behaviour. Only

behaviour that could be observed, recorded and measured was of any real value for
the study of humans or animals. Watson's thinking was significantly influenced by the
earlier classical conditioning experiments of Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov and his
now infamous dogs.
• Watson is best known for taking his theory of behaviourism and applying it to child
development. He believed strongly that a child's environment is the factor that shapes
behaviours over their genetic makeup or natural temperament.
• The "Little Albert" experiment was a famous psychology experiment conducted by
behaviourist John B. Watson and graduate student Rosalie Rayner. Previously,
Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov had conducted experiments demonstrating
the conditioning process in dogs. Watson was interested in taking Pavlov's research
further to show that emotional reactions could be classically conditioned in people.
• The Little Albert experiment presents an example of how classical conditioning can
be used to condition an emotional response.
▪ Neutral Stimulus: The white rat (in classical conditioning – bell)

▪ Unconditioned Stimulus: The loud noise (food)
▪ Unconditioned Response: Fear (salivation)
▪ Conditioned Stimulus: The white rat(bell)
▪ Conditioned Response: Fear (salivation)
3. Operant Conditioning: B.F. Skinner
• Operant conditioning (sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning) is a

method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behaviour.
Through operant conditioning, an association is made between behaviour and a
consequence for that behaviour.
• For example, when a lab rat presses a blue button, he receives a food pellet as a
reward, but when he presses the red button, he receives a mild electric shock. As a
result, he learns to press the blue button but avoid the red button.
▪ Reinforcement- The frequency of behaviour is increased because of the

behaviour of the subject.
▪ Positive reinforcement-When a person receives reinforcement after engaging
in some behaviour, the person is likely to repeat that behaviour
▪ Negative reinforcement- When a person experiences a negative state and
does something to eliminate the undesired state, the person is likely to repeat
that behaviour.
▪ Punishment- The frequency of behaviour is decreased because of the
behaviour of the subject.
▪ Positive Punishment- When a person engages in behaviour and something
negative is applied as a result, that behaviour is less likely to be repeated.
▪ Negative Punishment- When a person engages in behaviour and something
positive is taken away, that behaviour is less likely to be repeated.
• Techniques based on operant conditioning:
▪ Shaping: A gradual, behaviour modification technique in which successive

approximations to the desired behaviour is rewarded. Shaping, or behaviour-
shaping, is a variant of operant conditioning. Instead of waiting for a subject to
exhibit a desired behaviour, any behaviour leading to the target behaviour is
rewarded
▪ Chaining: An operant conditioning technique in which a complex behavioural

sequence is learned. Animals, both human and nonhuman, can be taught to
perform relatively elaborate sequences of activities by this method, which
makes primary reinforcement contingent on the final response in the series.
4. Social Learning Theory: Albert Bandura
• His early work on learning was grounded in the behavioral principles of

reinforcement and punishment, but he added a focus on learning from observing
others. This was labeled Social Learning Theory. Observational learning, method of
learning that consists of observing and modeling another individual’s behavior,
attitudes, or emotional expressions. Although it is commonly believed that the
observer will copy the model
• SLT is often described as the ‘bridge’ between traditional learning theory
(i.e., behaviorism) and the cognitive approach. This is because it focuses on how
mental (cognitive) factors are involved in learning.
• Unlike Skinner, Bandura (1977) believes that humans are active information
processors and think about the relationship between their behavior and its
consequences.
• Observational learning could not occur unless cognitive processes were at work.
These mental factors mediate (i.e., intervene) in the learning process to determine
whether a new response is acquired.
• Therefore, individuals do not automatically observe the behavior of a model and
imitate it. There is some thought prior to imitation, and this consideration is called
mediational processes. This occurs between observing the behavior (stimulus) and
imitating it or not (response)
• Bobo doll experiment
▪ In 1965, children can learn by merely observing the behavior of a social model
even without first performing the responses themselves or receiving any
reinforcement for performing them.
▪ Bandura then conducted a classic experiment in nursery school children. Each
watched a short film in which an adult model directed an unusual sequence of
aggressive responses towards an inflatable Bobo doll.
▪ Children in model rewarded condition saw a second adult give the aggressive
model candy and soda for a ‘championship performance’.
▪ Children in the model punished condition saw a second adult scold and spank
the model for beating up Bobo.
▪ Children in the no consequence condition simply saw the model behave
aggressively
▪ When the film ended each child was left alone in a playroom that contained a
Bobo doll and props that the model has used to beat up Bobo.
▪ Hidden observer recorded children in the model rewarded and no
consequences conditions imitated more of the model’s aggressive acts than
those who had seen the model punished for aggressive behavior.
▪ It looks very much like the kind of no trial observational learning that Bandura
has proposed.
• 4 Mediation process
▪ Attention: The extent to which we are exposed/notice the behavior. For a

behavior to be imitated, it has to grab our attention. We observe many
behaviors on a daily basis, and many of these are not noteworthy. Attention is
therefore extremely important in whether a behavior influences others
imitating it.
▪ Retention: How well the behavior is remembered. The behavior may be
noticed but is it not always remembered which obviously prevents imitation. It
is important therefore that a memory of the behavior is formed to be
performed later by the observer.
▪ Reproduction: This is the ability to perform the behavior that the model has
just demonstrated. We see much behavior on a daily basis that we would like
to be able to imitate but that this not always possible. We are limited by our
physical ability and for that reason, even if we wish to reproduce the behavior,
we cannot.
▪ Motivation: The will to perform the behavior. The rewards and punishment
that follow a behavior will be considered by the observer. If the perceived
rewards outweigh the perceived costs (if there are any), then the behavior will
be more likely to be imitated by the observer. If the vicarious reinforcement is
not seen to be important enough to the observer, then they will not imitate it.
• Self-efficacy-Perceived self-efficacy is defined as people’s beliefs about their

capabilities to produce designated levels of performance that exercise influence over
events that affect their lives. Self-efficacy beliefs determine how people feel, think,
motivate themselves and behave. Such beliefs produce these diverse effects through
four major processes.
• Reciprocal Determinism
▪ Bandura was also the creator of the reciprocal determinism theory which
showed he believed that a person’s behavior both influences and is influenced
by personal factors and the social environment.
▪ Personal factors are those that are based on a person’s morals, ethics ideas,
and personality. The social environment consists of everything external to the
self, which are other people, their beliefs, ideas and external items.
▪ Two brief examples of reciprocal determinism would be a person who is afraid
of flying on airplanes will act nervous, scared, and out of the ordinary which
would be the personal factor. This will cause the other people on the plane to
become agitated and worried, making the nervous flier even more afraid. This
shows how personal determinants, environmental determinants and behavioral
determinants interact and influence each other.
i. Human Needs Theory
1. Abraham Maslow
• MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS

Maslow identified eight innate needs, including the need to know and understand,
aesthetic needs, and the need for transcendence. However, the hierarchy is usually
shown as ranging through five main levels, from, at the lowest level, physiological
needs, through safety needs, love needs, and esteem needs, to the need for self-
actualization at the highest level. The hierarchy of needs may be shown as a series of
steps, but is usually displayed in the form of a pyramid.
a) Physiological needs. These include homeostasis (the body’s automatic efforts
to retain normal functioning) such as satisfaction of hunger and thirst, the need
for oxygen and to maintain temperature regulation. Also sleep, sensory
pleasures, activity, maternal behavior, and arguably sexual desire.
b) Safety needs. These include safety and security, freedom from pain or threat
of physical attack, protection from danger or deprivation, the need for
predictability and orderliness. People at this level might consider their jobs as
security factors and as a way to keep what they have acquired.
c) Love needs (often referred to as social needs). These include affection, sense
of belonging, social activities, friendships, and both the giving and receiving
of love.
d) Esteem Needs: (sometimes referred to as ego needs). These include both self-
respect and the esteem of others. Self-respect involves the desire for
confidence, strength, independence and freedom, and achievement. Esteem of
others involves reputation or prestige, status, recognition, attention and
appreciation.
e) Self-actualization needs. This is the development and realization of one’s full

potential. Maslow sees this as: ‘What humans can be, they must be’, or
‘becoming everything that one is capable of becoming’. Self-actualization
needs are not necessarily a creative urge, and may take many forms which
vary widely from one individual to another. They accept their own
achievements and seek new opportunities to use their unique skills and talents.
Although Maslow suggests that most people have these basic needs in about
the order indicated, he also makes it clear that the hierarchy is not necessarily a fixed
order.
j. Moral Development Theories: Lawrence Kohlberg
 Born on October 25, 1927, an American psychologist best known for his theory of
stages of moral development.
 He was born wealthy but chose to be sailor and began to be interested in moral
reasoning, extending Jean Piaget's account of children's moral development and John
Dewey’s theory.
 Piagetian tasks - specific task designed by Piaget in order to learn about the cognitive
development of children.
 Kohlberg dilemmas – moral dilemmas utilized by Kohlberg. These dilemmas are
represented to individuals in his research and asked for their responses. The main goal
of this is not to judge whether the response is right or wrong but in analyzing the
moral reasoning behind the responses.
 Moral development-Kohlberg adopted Piaget’s work and set groundwork for the
present debate within psychology on moral development.
 He believed that people progressed in their ability to reason morally through (6) six
stages with (3) three levels largely by social interaction and our ability to choose right
from wrong is tied with our ability to understand and reason logically.
 He found out that the process of attaining moral maturity is long and slow.
 He also believes that children form ways of thinking through experience (which
include understandings of moral concepts such as: Justice, Rights, Equality, and
Human Welfare.)
 Kohlberg’s (6) six stages of moral reasoning grouped into (3) three major levels
a) Level 1. Preconventional Level (Stages 1-2)
▪ Moral reasoning is based on the consequences or result of the act, not on

whether the act itself is good or bad.
▪ Stage 1 - Obedience and Punishment
One is motivated by fear if punishment. He will act in order to avoid
punishment.
▪ Stage 2 - Mutual Benefit
One is motivated to act by the benefit that one may obtain later. "You scratch
my back, I'll scratch yours."
b) Level 2. Conventional Level (Stages 3-4)
▪ Moral reasoning is based on the conventions or "norms" of society. This may

include approval of others, law and order.
▪ Stage 3 - Social Approval
One is motivated by what others expect in behavior - good boy, good girl.
The person acts because he/she values how he/she will appear to others.
He/she gives importance on what people will think or say.
▪ Stage 4 - Law and Order
One is motivated to act in order to uphold law and order. This person will
follow the law because it is the law.
c) Level 3. Post-conventional Level (Stages 5-6)
▪ Moral reasoning is based on enduring or consistent principles. It is not just

recognizing the law, but the principles behind the law.
▪ Stage 5 - Social Contract
Laws that are wrong can be changed. One will act based on social justice and
the common good.
▪ Stage 6- Universal Principles
this is associated with the development of one's conscience. Having a set of
standards that drives one to possess moral responsibility to make societal
changes regardless of consequences to oneself. Examples of persons are
Mother Teresa and Martin Luther King Jr.
k. Carol Gilligan stage of ethics of care theory
• Gilligan was a student of Developmental Psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg, who

introduced the theory of stages of moral development.
• Gilligan, however, felt as though her mentor's theory did not adequately address
the gender differences of moral development due to the fact that participants in
Kohlberg's study were predominately male and because his theory did not include
the caring perspective.
• Gilligan proposed the Stages of the Ethics of Care theory, which addresses what
makes actions 'right' or 'wrong'. Gilligan's theory focused on both care-based morality
and justice-based morality.
a) Care-based morality is based on the following principles:
▪ Emphasizes interconnectedness and universality.

▪ Acting justly means avoiding violence and helping those in need.
▪ Care-based morality is thought to be more common in girls because of their
connections to their mothers.
▪ Because girls remain connected to their mothers, they are less inclined to
worry about issues of fairness.
b) Justice-based morality is based on the following principles:
▪ Views the world as being composed of autonomous individuals who interact

with another.
▪ Acting justly means avoiding inequality.
▪ Is thought to be more common in boys because of their need to differentiate
between themselves and their mothers.
▪ Because they are separated from their mothers, boys become more concerned
with the concept of inequality.
• Gilligan's reply was to assert that women were not inferior in their personal or moral
development, but that they were different.
• They developed in a way that focused on connections among people (rather than
separation) and with an ethic of care for those people (rather than an ethic of justice).
Gilligan lays out in this ground breaking book this alternative theory.
Gilligan's Stages of the Ethic of Care
Approximate Age
Stage Goal
Range
not listed Preconventional Goal is individual survival
Transition is from selfishness -- to -- responsibility to others
not listed Conventional Self-sacrifice is goodness
Transition is from goodness -- to -- truth that she is a person too
Principle of nonviolence: do not hurt others or
maybe never Postconventional
self
l. Parenting Theories
1. Diana Baumrind
• Diana Baumrind is one of those psychologists, as well as one of the most well-
known researchers on parenting styles. Baumrind developed her Pillar Theory, which
draws relationships between basic parenting styles and children's behaviour.
• Baumrind came up with three major parenting styles:
▪ Authoritarian-which is too hard

▪ Permissive-which is too soft
▪ Authoritative-which is just right
a) Authoritarian Parenting
Is a style of child rearing that is very demanding and rigid. Authoritarian
parents are extremely strict and expect their orders to be obeyed. Think of the
popular image of an army drill sergeant. Authoritarian parents expect their rules to
be followed unquestioningly.
▪ Abusive parents almost always fall into this category. That said, Baumrind did
not believe that all authoritarian parents are abusive. Authoritarian parents
show low levels of warmth or responsiveness, meaning they are not very
attentive to children's needs. They also tend to punish their children by
withholding love and affection from them when they do wrong.
b) Permissive Parenting
On the opposite end of the spectrum is the permissive parent, or a parent
who is not strict at all. Contrary to the authoritarian parent, the permissive parent
is extremely responsive to a child's needs and does not enforce many rules or
punishments. The term spoiled is often used to describe the children of permissive
parents.
▪ Permissive parents tend not to impose guidelines or limits on their children
and are very warm and loving. Nor do they expect their children to be very
responsible. Permissive parents tend not to portray themselves as authority
figures.
c) Authoritative Parenting
An authoritative parenting style is characterized by a combination of
expectations and warmth. Authoritative parents present themselves as authority
figures and expect their children to behave but they are also caring, loving and
responsive.
▪ These parents set rules and enforce boundaries by having open discussion,
providing guidance and using reasoning. These parents provide their kids with
reasoning and explanation for their action. Explanations allow children to have
a sense of awareness and teach kids about values, morals, and goals. Their
disciplinary methods are confrontive, i.e. reasoned, negotiable, outcome-
oriented, and concerning with regulating behaviours
d) Neglectful parenting
Neglectful parents do not set firm boundaries or high standards. They are
indifferent to their children’s needs and uninvolved in their lives.
These uninvolved parents may have mental issues themselves such as depression,
or physical abuse or child neglect when they were kids.
▪ Children rose by neglectful parents: Are more impulsive, Cannot self-regulate

emotion, Encounter more delinquency and addictions problems, Have more
mental issues — e.g. suicidal behaviour in adolescents.
TEMPERAMENT
• Alexander Thomas & Stella Chess
• Temperament- early appearing, stable individual differences in reactivity and self -
regulation
• Reactivity refers to quickness and intensity of emotional arousal, attention and motor
action Self- regulation refers to strategies that modify that reactivity. (Rotbart &
Bates ,2006).
• The psychological traits that make up temperament are believed to form the
cornerstone of the adult personality.
• In 1956 , Alexander Thomas and Stella chess initiated the New York longitudinal
study , a ground breaking investigation of the development of temperament that
followed 141 children from early infancy well into adulthood .Result showed that
temperament can increase a child’s chances of experiencing psychological problems
or alternatively , protect a child from negative effect of stressful home life .At the
same time , Thomas and chess (1977)discovered that parenting practices can modify
children’s temperament considerably .
The structure of temperament
Thomas and chess’s model consists of nine dimensions. When detailed

descriptions of infants and children’s behaviour obtained from parent interviews were
rated on these dimension, certain characteristics clustered together, yielding three
types of children
1. The easy child-(40 percent of the sample) quickly establishes regular routines
in infancy in generally cheerful and adapts easily to new experiences.
2. The difficult child-(10 percent of the sample ) has irregular day routines , is
slow to accept new experiences and tends to react negatively and intensely
3. The slow-to-warm-up child-(15 percent of the sample ) is inactive , shows
mild, low key reactions to environmental stimuli , is negative in mood , and
adjusts slowly to new experiences
• Note that 35 of children did not fit any of these categories. Instead they showed
unique blends of temperamental characteristics.
• The difficult patterns has sparked the most interest because it places children at
high risk for adjustment problems -both anxious withdrawal and aggressive
behaviour in early and middle childhood (Bates & Waches & Ernde 1994; Ramos
,2005; Thomas chess & birch 1968) . Compared with difficult children, slow to
warm up children present fewer problems in early years. However they tend to
show excessive fearfulness and slow, constricted behaviour in the late preschool
and school years, when they are expected to respond actively and quickly in
classrooms and peer groups
Two Models of Temperament
1. Temperament and development (Thomas and Chess)

2. Rothbart Model of temperament
▪ It combines related traits proposed by THOMAS and CHESS and other researchers,
yielding a concise list of just six dimensions.
1. Distractibility
2. Attention span
3. Persistence
4. Fearful distress
5. Irritable distress
6. Frustration
Temperament and Child Rearing: The goodness-of-fit model
• The goodness of fit model proposed by THOMES and CHESS(1977)

• Goodness of fit, as used in psychology and parenting, describes the compatibility
of a person's temperament with the features of their particular social environment.
• All environments, i.e. family, lifestyle, workplace, etc. have differing
characteristics and demands
LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
Components of Language
Language consists of several subsystems that have to do with sound, meaning, overall
structure and everyday use. Language development entails mastering each of these aspects
and combining them into a flexible communication system. They components are phonology,
semantics, grammar and pragmatics.
a) Phonology
▪ Refers to the rules governing the structure and sequence of speech sounds.
▪ The phonological system of a language includes an inventory of sounds and their
features, and Rules which specify how sounds interact with each other.
▪ Phonology is just one of several aspects of language. It is related to other aspects
such as phonetics, morphology, syntax, and pragmatics.
▪ An example of phonology is the study of different sounds and the way they come
together to form speech and words - such as the comparison of the sounds of the
two “p’’sounds in “pop-up.”
▪ Phonological development refers to forming and using speech sounds to clearly
communicate language. As more sounds of a language are acquired, language
becomes clearer, and pronunciation, fluency, and intonation all improve.
b) Semantics
▪ It involves vocabulary –the way underlying concepts are expressed in words and
word combinations.
▪ More specifically, it is the study of meanings through the relationships of words,
how they are used, and how they are said.
▪ When the children first use a word, it often does not mean the same thing as it
does to adults. Children must refine the meanings of thousands of words and
connect them into elaborate network of related terms
▪ To call someone an angel doesn't mean they inhabit heaven. Semantics leads us to
believe they have a lovely disposition
c) Grammar
▪ Syntax: The rules by which the words are arranged into sentences. Example: One
rule of syntax is that an article such as “the” must come before a noun, not after:
“Read the book,” not “Read book the.”
▪ Morphology: The term morphology is Greek and is a makeup of morph- meaning
‘shape, form’, and -ology which means ‘the study of something'. It is the use of
grammatical makers indicating the number, tense, case, person, gender, active and
passive voice.
▪ It was first named by August Schleicher a German linguistic.
Perspectives of language development
During the first half of 20th century, researchers identified language milestone that
applied to children around the globe: All babbled around 6 months, said their first words at
about 1-year, combined words at the end of the second year, and had mastered a vast
vocabulary and most grammatical constructions by 4-5 years.
a. The nativist perspective
• Linguist Noam Chomsky (1957) proposed a nativist theory that regards language as a
unique human accomplishment, etched into the structure of the brain
• Chomsky reasoned that the rules of sentence organization are too complex to be
directly taught to young children
• Chomsky said that the children have a language acquisition device (LAD) –an innate
system that permits them, once they have acquired sufficient vocabulary.
• That is to say that we are born with a set of rules about language in our heads which
he refers to as the 'Universal Grammar'. The universal grammar is the basis upon
which all human languages build.
b. The Interactionist Perspective
• Interactionism is a theoretical perspective that derives social processes (such as

conflict, cooperation, identity formation) from human interaction.
• It is the study of how individuals shape society and is shaped by society through
meaning that arises in interactions.
• George Herbert Mead, as an advocate of pragmatism and the subjectivity of social
reality, is considered a leader in the development of interactionism.
**************************************

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Study Material 12 - Developmental Psychology

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Developmental

1|P age www.pepponline.in

8. Early social and emotional behaviours 14

10. Theories of development 17

12. Language development 40

2|P age www.pepponline.in

3|P age www.pepponline.in

4|P age www.pepponline.in

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a. Cephalocaudal (head to tail)

Primary stages of prenatal development

• From conception to 2 weeks.

7|P age www.pepponline.in

8|P age www.pepponline.in

▪ Week 3: Beginning development of the brain, heart, blood cells, circulatory

9|P age www.pepponline.in

• Prenatal development is most dramatic during the foetal stage.

▪ Weeks 9–12: The foetus reaches approximately 8 cm in length; the head is

• A reflex is an inborn, automatic response to a particular form of stimulations.

▪ Stimulation-stroke cheek near corner of mouth

▪ Stimulation- place finger in infant’s mouth

d) Swimming- Infant swimming is the phenomenon of human babies and toddlers

▪ Stimulation- occurs when infants face down in pool of water

▪ Spreading out the arm

▪ Stimulation- place finger in infants’ hands and press against palm

▪ Stimulation- stroke sole of foot from toe toward heel

• Two growth patterns describe the changes in body proportion: -

a. Sequence of Motor Development

▪ Reaching is largely controlled by proprioception-our sense of movement and

a. Attraction to pleasant stimulation

• Depending on the amount of teratogenic substance, duration of exposure and stage of

Teratogens are classified into four categories:

▪ Metabolic conditions are abnormalities in the chemical process of producing energy

• Drugs that can act as teratogens include:

▪ ACE(angiotensin converting enzyme) inhibitors :

2. Anal stage (1-3 years)

3. Phallic stage (3-6 years)

4. Latency stage (6-11 years)

5. Genital stage (puberty to adult)

5. Identity vs role confusion (12- 18 years)

• Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of fidelity.

2. Preoperational period (roughly 2 to 7 years)

3. Concrete operational period (roughly 7 to 11 years)

4. Formal operational period (roughly 11 to 15 years)

• 2 main features of formal operational:

a) Hypothetico Deductive Reasoning

d. Sociocultural theory by Lev Semyonovitch Vygotsky(1896 -1934)

Vygotsky and the language

f. Konrad Lorenz: Ethology Theory

1. Harry Harlow Experiment

• Ethological theory of attachment, which recognizes the infant’s emotional tie to

3. Measuring the security of attachment- Mary Ainsworth

• A widely used laboratory technique for assessing the quality of attachment

h. Behavioural and social learning theory

1. Classical conditioning- Ivan Pavlov

• Classical conditioning is a reflexive or automatic type of learning in which a stimulus

▪ Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): The natural stimulus that elicits a natural

• Behaviourism, according to Watson, was the science of observable behaviour. Only

▪ Neutral Stimulus: The white rat (in classical conditioning – bell)

3. Operant Conditioning: B.F. Skinner

• Operant conditioning (sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning) is a

▪ Reinforcement- The frequency of behaviour is increased because of the

▪ Shaping: A gradual, behaviour modification technique in which successive