IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, Vol. 14, No.

1, February 1999 105

A Review of Selected Optimal Power Flow Literature to 1993
Part 11: Newton, Linear Programming and Interior Point Methods.

James A. Mo noh M. E. El-Hawary Ramababu Adapa

Department of Electric 11 Engineering Department of Electrical Engineering Power System Planning Division
Howard Unive-sity, Technical University of Nova Scotia Electric Power Research Inst.
Washington, D. C. 20059. Halifax, Nova Scotia, 835 2x4 Palo Alto, CA 94303

ABSTRACT: This seconc of a two part paper offers a survey of
literature on optimal power flow up to 1993. This part treats
Newton-based,linear prc gramming and interior point methods
of solution.
Keywords: Optimal Fower Flow, OPF, Optimization in
electric power networks.
I. INTRODUCTION
This is the second part of a literature survey on optimal
power flow up to 1993. We focus our attention on the
following categories of 3ptimization techniques.
1.Newton-based jolution of optimality conditions;
2.linear programining (LP),
3. hybrid of lir ear programming and quadratic
programming, and
4. interior point IT ethods.
II. NEWTON -RAPHSON BASED CATEGORY
In 1974, Rashed [l] presented a method which
employed a nonlinear programming approach based on the
homotopy continuation algorithm for minimizing loss and
cost objective functiois. A Lagrange multiplier and
Newton’s method wc.re also used, and the method
introduced an acceleraion factor to calculate the update
controls. This work was an extension of Tinney’s, and
voltage magnitude was treated as a parameter constraint.
The method was validared on an actual 179-bus system and
compared well with augmented MINOS schemes.
In addition, Happ 121 presented a method which used
Lagrange multipliers 3pplied to an economic dispatch
objective function. The method is based on the Newton-
Raphson load flow and used the Jacobian matrix to form and
solve for the incremental losses. The method was tested on a
PE-337-PWRS-1-04-1998 A paper recommended and approved by
the [FEE power System Analysis, Computing and Economics
Committee of the IEEE Power Engineering Society for publication in the
IEEE Transactions on Pswer Systems. Manuscript submitted
December 31, 1997, made available for printing April 24, 1998
118 bus test system and the results were compared with
other approaches. The algorithm is good for both on-line
and off-line operations, and contingency studies were
performed using this method. This method compared well
with the B-matrix method in terms of optimum production
cost of total generation, losses, and load.
In 1984, Sun et al. [3] presented a Newton-based
optimization technique for solving reactive power
optimization. This method solved a quadratic
approximation of the Lagrangian at each iteration and was
validated on an actual 912-bus system. The method used
network sparsity techniques and a Lagrange multiplier
approach. The zigzagging phenomenon used in this method
are comparable to other conventional OPF techniques. The
super-linear convergence to Kuhn-Tucker condition makes
the approach suitable for practical large systems.
In 1987, Pereira et al. [4] presented a method which
solves an economic dispatch problem with security
constraints using a decomposition approach. The economic
dispatch problem can be solved by an approach which can
take into account the system’s corrective capabilities after
an outage has occurred. This method solved the following
types of dispatch problems: the pure economic dispatch
problem, the security-constrained dispatch problem, and the
security-constrained dispatch with re-scheduling problem.
This method linearized AC/DC power flows and performed
sensitivity analysis of load variations. Practical testing of
the method was performed on the Southem Brazilian system
with encouraging results. A Bender’s decomposition
approach was employed.
In the same year (1987), Sanders, and Monroe [SI
presented an algorithm for security constrained dispatch
calculations. The method is good for real-time on-line use
and was tested on a 1200 bus 1500 line practical power
system. The method is referred to as a constrained
economic dispatch calculation (CEDC) and was designed to
meet the following objectives, 1) provide economic base
points to load frequency control (LFC); 2) promote
Of by network transmission
limitations, 3) provide constrained participation factors, and
4) be usable in present control computer systems. This
CEDC, which is assumed to be in the standard cubic
polynomial form algorithm, was compared with a
benchmark OPF algonthm to evaluate its effectiveness and

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 106
uses the basic Lagrange multiplier technique for OPF. The
CEDC objective was optimized subject to area constraints,
line constraints, and line-group constraints. The security
constraints were linearized and this required the calculation
of constraint-sensitivity factors. The sensitivity factors can
be determined from telemetry-based estimates of the
fractional system load internal to the constrained area. The
load flow was not used as a constraint; instead, it was used
to simulate the periodic incremental system losses.
In 1987, Monticelli et al. [6] presented a framework for
solving the economic dispatch problem with security
constraints. The algorithm was based on mathematical
programming decomposition. This technique allows the
iterative solution of a base-case economic dispatch and
separate contingency analysis with generation re-scheduling
to estimate constraint violation. Monticelli’s method was
tested on the IEEE 118-bus test system, and the specific
dispatch problems solved were the pure economic dispatch
problem, the security-constrained dispatch problem, and the
security-constrained dispatch problem with rescheduling.
The method included preventive control actions and
indicated an automatic way of adjusting the controls. The
Bender’s decomposition algorithm employed in this paper
can onIy be guaranteed under some convexity assumptions
and required that each decomposition be feasible for a
feasible solution to be obtained. The method also employed
a scheme for detecting infeasibility.
PR MMING CATEGORY.
In 1968, Wells [7] developed a linear programming
approach to determine an economical schedule that is
consistent with network security requirements for loading
plants in a power system, The cost objective and its
constraints were linearized and solved using the simplex
method. This represented an experimental algorithm to
implement a scheme for selecting and updating variables at
the buses. Primarily, this is a decomposition approach based
on Dantzig and Wolfe’s algorithm. The limitations of this
method are: (1) the final results for an infeasible situation
obtained may not be optimum and ( 2 ) rounding errors
caused by digital computers may cause constraints to appear
overloaded.
In 1970, Shen and Laughton [8] presented a dual linear
programming technique. The method was tested on a 23-
bus non-practical power system. Single-line outages were
considered in the problem formulation, and comparative
studies using nonlinear programming were done. Both
primal and dual problems were proposed and the solutions
were obtained using the revised simplex method.
Variational studies of system dispatch load were also
performed and changes in system networks developed. This
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method has been well-tested and has shown promising
results.
In 1978, Stott and Hobson [9] presented the second of a
series of papers applying linear programming to solve
practical power systems problems. The paper handled the
calculation of control actions for reliefing of network
overloads dealing emergency state. A linear programming
iterative technique for network sparsity selection of binding
constraints and the application of a dual formulation was
employed. Because of the LP method used, the larger
number of bus limits the computational burden. This
method included six objective functions which were
prioritized, and the method was extended to handle load
shedding. The method is capable of handling high voltage,
taps, and large sized systems: the method also handles
infeasibility using heuristics. This method appears very
efficient for the systems tested, and the efficiency of the
method was demonstrated using various load levels. The
sensitivity of this method was observed by looking at
different generator and line outages; however, the method is
limited to linear objective functions, and in problems where
quadratic objectives exist, quadratic programming is
recommended.
In 1979, Stott and Marinho [lo] presented a linear
programming approach using a modified revised simplex
technique for security dispatch and emergency control
calculations on large power systems. The method
accommodated multi-segment generator cost curves and
employed sparse matrix techniques. This method was based
on a generalized linear programming code and not the
classical linear programming approach. It was developed on
an IBM 370-158 and tested on 30 and 126 bus systems.
Linearization were required to obtain solutions, and the two
objective functions used were quadratic cost curves and the
weighted least square approach. The method included
practical components such as transformer tap setting; the
results were obtained within a reasonable time frame and
appeared to be efficient.
In 1982, Stadlin and Fletcher [ll] presented a paper
which employed the method which uses a current model for
voltage/reactive dispatch and control. The method provided
a network modeling technique that showed the effect of
reactive control of voltage. The OPF problem was solved
by using a linear programming technique. An advantage of
the method is that the typical load flow equation can be
decomposed into reactive power and voltage magnitude.
The voltage and VAR coefficients lead to the sensitivity
coefficients of the formulation, and the method provides
modeling of other devices such as current models,
transformer taps, incremental losses, and sensitivity of
different models. This method was demonstrated on a 30-
bus E E E test system, and the efficiency of the valtageNAR

be simulated on the c
the linearized constra
functions with variabl
were used in the mt
dispatch as well as fast
models and is suitable
Also in 1984, ,
presented a non-conve
involving a piece-w
so that the active cons
hence, only inactivt
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treated as a set of penalty
s coefficients. The method
formulation, and a classical
led load flow were employed.
mino and Quintana [15]
ear programming technique
entiable penalty function
ion is a linear combination of
remain active or feasible, and,
straints were considered to
107
primal simplex techniques. It introduced artificial variables
which link constraints and turns them into equalities which,
in tum, lowers the number of iterations there by saving CPU
time. A penalty function linear programming method can
also be used in dual linear programming formulations. The
approach presented in this paper can be easily extended to
quadratic programming problems.
In 1986, Mota-Palomino and Quintana [ 161 presented a
penalty-function linear-programming-based algorithm to
solve reactive power dispatch problems. The method
applied a criterion to form a sparse reactive power
sensitivity matrix which was modeled as a bipartite graph
and is an efficient constraint relaxation strategy to solve
linearized reactive dispatch problems. This method allowed
several constraint violations and can handle infeasibility by
finding the closest point to a feasible point. The method is
capable of handling large system sizes based on the
sensitivity matrix (bipartite graph). The reactive power
dispatch problem solved was made up of various vector
functions which included (1) a vector of costs associated
with changes in generated voltages at voltage-controlled
nodes, (2) a vector of costs associated with changes in shunt
susceptance connected to the nodes of the system, and (3) a
vector of cost-associated changes in transformer turn ratios.
The inequality constraints set limits on the allowed changes
in the variables and the reactive current generations, and
both hard and soft constraints were handled in the problem
formulation. To minimize the computational burden of the
method, the sensitivity graph was used to define a subset of
constraints that must be included in the linear programming
problem formulation. This method was tested on a 256-
node, 58-voltage-controlled-node interconnected Mexican
system and was considered to be efficient because of the
sparsity technique in its formulation. The sensitivity matrix
(bipartite graph) was used to decide which constraints are
binding.
In 1987, Santos-Nieto and Quintana [17] presented a
linear programming technique used for solving linear
reactive power flow problems. The three objectives studied
are real power losses, load voltage deviation, and feasibility
enforcement of violated constraints. A penalty function
linear programming algorithm was implemented along with
a scheme for handling infeasibility. This method was
validated on a 253-bus Mexican test system, and the
feasibility, due to sensitivity, was not shown in this
formulation.
W . MIXTURE OF LINEAR PROGRAMMING AND
QUADRATIC PROGRAMMING CATEGORY
In 1973, Nabona and Fems [18] presented a method
which involved quadratic and linear programming for
. .
optimizing the economic dispatch objective. T h e minimum
 108
loss problem was solved using a linear programming
approach, and the minimum cost and reactive power
problems were solved using either a quadratic or a linear
programming approach. The technique is embedded in a
Newton-Raphson power flow program with limits on line
flows and other constraints which can be implemented easily
in the formulation. This algorithm does not need to start at a
feasible non-optimal point and was validated on 14-, 30-,
and 57-bus systems. The on-line operation of this approach
seems feasible and avoids the difficulties associated with the
gradient optimization approach.
In 1986, Contaxis et al. [19] presented a method to
solve the optimal power flow problem by decomposing it
into two sub-problems: the real and reactive sub-problems.
The method employed both linear and quadratic
programming, depending on the type of problem to be
solved. A quadratic programming approach was used to
solve the two sub-problems at each iteration, and a linear
programming approach was used if the valve point loading
was to be considered. The method solved fuel cost and
system losses and linearized the nonlinear constraints using
a Z-matrix technique and sensitivity analysis. Line flows
were expressed as linear functions of the generator outputs
by utilizing generalized generation distribution factors
GGDF. Reordering and sparsity techniques were used for
triangularization of the bus admittance matrix. Both fuel
cost and system loss objectives were optimized using this
method.
POINT CATEGORY
Even though the interior point method was devised in
the early to mid-I980s, its application to power system
optimization problems began slightly later. In 1991,
Clements et al. [20] presented one of the first interior point
research studies applied to power systems. Clements
presented a nonlinear programming interior point technique
for solving power system state estimation problems and
which facilitates detection and identification of bad data.
This method used a logarithmic barrier function interior
point method to accommodate inequality constraints, and
Newton’s method to solve the Karush-Kuhn-Tucker (KKT)
equations. It is not dear if the method was capable of
handling new constraints and variables. The method has the
advantage of solving the problem in considerably fewer
LtetatLons a s com Pared to lLnear programm;ng techniques,
where the number of iterations is system dependent. This
method was tested on up to a 118-bus system including 6-,
30-, 40-, and 55-bus systems with favorable results. The
choice of the initial starting points was a limitation of the
method. However, the method takes advantage of Choleski-
factorization technique to cut down the CPU time.
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In 1991, Ponnambalam et ai. [21] presented a newly
developed dual affine (DA) algorithm (a variant of
Karmarkar’s interior point method) implemented to solve
the hydro-scheduling problem. The hydro-scheduling
problem was formulated as a linear programming problem
with equality and inequality constraints. The number of
iterations required to solve large-scale problems are
relatively small and is generally between 20-60 iterations
irrespective of the size of the problem. This algorithm is
suitable for problems with large numbers of constraints and
is applicable to linear and nonlinear optimization problems.
The largest problem solved comprised of 880 variables and
3680 constraints, and the algorithm has been implemented
considering the sparsity of the constraint matrix. The
normal equation that is required to be solved in every
iteration is solved using a preconditioned conjugate gradient
method, This method was tested on up to 118 buses with
3680 constraints, and it was discovered that the dual affine
algorithm is only appropriate for a problem with inequality
constraints. The problem is changed to a primal problem
with only inequality constraints. Adler’s method was used
to obtain initial feasible points and the method solved the
118-bus system over nine times faster than an efficient
simplex (MINOS) code. The superiority of the DA method
over the simplex method for staircase-structured multi-
period hydro-scheduling was established.
In 1992, Vargas et al. [22] presented an interior point
(E’)method to solve the power system economic dispatch
problem. Vargas employed a successive linear
programming (SLP) approach for security-constrained
economic dispatch (SCED) problems. The method
employed a new dual affine interior point algorithm for
solving LP problems and solved the classical OPF problem
with power flow constraints, flows, real and reactive
generation, transformer tap ratios, and voltage magnitude.
The SCED problem was decomposed into two steps, and the
load flow was solved separately for the optimization routine.
This method employed a distribution factor to relate the
active power to generation factors and was tested on the
IEEE 30- and 118-bus systems. The interior point approach
gave the optimal solution in fewer number of iterations
when compared to MINOS 5.0 and out-performed it by a
speed factor of 36: 1. Sensitivity studies on the variation of
generation for the 30 and 118-bus systems were also
performed.
In the same year (1992). Momoh et a1 123.241 presented
an implementation of a Quadratic Interior Point (QIP)
method for optimal power flow problems, economic
dispatch, and VAR planning. This method solves linear or
quadratic objective functions with linear constraints. The
method solves the economic dispatch objective in two
process: (1) the Interior Point algorithm obtains the optimal
generations and (2) the generations obtained from the Ip
 109
method are implemer d into the load flow to determine the In 1993, Granville 1271 presented an IP method for
violations. This met1 I was tested on the IEEE 14-bus test; solving the VAR planning objective function of installation
however, security CI ;trained economic dispatch or VAR cost and losses; o is introduced as a trade factor. The
planning objectives 1 re not handled. The CPU time of problem solved was a non-convex, nonlinear programming
QIP when compared MINOS 5.0 was 8: 1, and the results problem with nonlinear constraints, and the primal-dual
obtained were promi g. Momoh's method is capable of variant of intenor point was employed in this research. A
handling new variabl and constraints and can be adopted W-matrix approach is employed in this method, and the
on other computer F forms. No variation or sensitivity primal-dual algorithm is very effective for solving the VAR
studies of load and ge rations were performed. planning problem with losses. The primal-dual logarithmic
Also in 1993, Mc oh et al. [25] presented an approach barrier method employed in this paper has shown superior
which employs Kai arkar's interior point method for computational performance when applied to linear and
mming problems. The method quadratic programming problems. However, proper weights
solving linear pro€
must be specified in order for the algorithm to reach a
presented is an extc ed quadratic interior point (EQIP)
solution satisfactory for both loss minimization and reactive
method based on il rovement of initial conditions for
injection costs. The method was tested on very large
solving both linear i I quadratic programming problems.
practical (1862- and 3462-) bus systems and the method
This method is an ex1 sion of the dual affine algorithm and
timization problems (PSOP) such as handles infeasibility by routinely adjusting limits to handle
solves power system
economic dispatch 1 VAR planning problems. The
load flow limits. The authors attempted to incorporate
Bender's decomposition algorithm with the primal-dual
method is capable I accommodating the nonlinearity in
algorithm to improve the efficiency of the method.
objectives and constr Its. This method was tested on 118-
bus system. Discre control variables and contingency It can be concluded that LP has fast speed and
constrained problems :re not handled in the formulation of reasonable accuracy, suitable for large systems. Interior
this aspect of the w( . The efficiency of this method is point features good starting point and fast convergence.
based on the ability tc tart with a good initial starting point
and the criteria for timality is illustrated. This EQIP
approach was compu to MINOS 5.0 and was shown to be CONCLUSIONS
faster by a factor of 5
This paper reviewed the optimization techniques that
In 1992, Lu and um 1261 presented an IP method for were applied to the optimal power flow problem up to 1993.
solving various sizes network constrained security control Papers were selected to emphasize the diversity of
linear programming p dems. The method solved the relief formulations and the breadth of the scope of problems
of network overloa by active power controls and considered.
employed controls s h as the generation shifting, phase-
shifter control HVJX Building on the rich background available in earlier
nk control, and load shedding. The
method employed th linear programming technique to surveys on OPF such as Happ 1281, this paper offers a
obtain an initial feasil background for a wide variety of applications.
solution before applying the interior
point method, and thc riginal problem was solved with the
primal interior point 5orithm. More work is required on REFERENCES
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 111

A C K N WLEDGMENTS
~~ 1981; and his Ph.D in Electrical Engineering from the
University of Waterloo, Ontario, Canada in 1986.
Dr. Adapa joined the Power System Planning and
Operations program of the Electrical Systems Division of
EPRI, Palo Alto, California in June 1989.Prior to joining
EPRI, he was a staff Engineer in the Systems Engineering
department of McGraw-Edison, where he was involved in
several digital and analog studies performed for electric
utilities. At EPRI, he is managing the Electro-Magnetic
Transient Programs (EMTP) development and Maintenance
project, commercialization of Harmonic Analysis Software
(HARMFLO) endeavor, and several other EPRVNSF funded
University in 1983. projects. His areas of interest include EMTP, Power System
Planning and Operations, HVDC Transmission, and
Harmonics.

Science Foundati entia1 Young Investigator Award.

Electrical Engineering the University of Alexandria,

Newfoundland, and cal University of Nova Scotia

where he is presently ssor of Electrical Engineering.

Economics and Com a1 Methods in Power Systems

Electrical Engineering.

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