502 ELECTRICITY AND MAGNET

field increases the magnetization by the rotation of the domain vectors in the direction of
tho
applied field.
13.15 HYSTERESIS
The real distinguishing characteristic of a ferromagnetic material is not that it can be stron.
M is not directly proportional to
magnetized but that the intensity of magnetization
magnetizing field H. If a increasing magnetic field H is applied to an unmagneti
gradually ized
piece of iron, its magnetization increases non-linearls
until it reaches a maximum. If M is plotted against
M H, a curve like OA is obtained, this curve is know
as the magnetization curve. At this stage, all the
****~
dipoles are aligned and M has reached to maximum
B or saturated value. It is often more convenient to
plot B than M, the difference is often small except
for the factor Ho. asB=Ho(H M) and Misusually
+
H much greater than H. If a magnetic field H is now
reduced, the M (or B) does not return along
magnetization curve but follows that AB. At H = 0.
D M (or B) does not come to its zero value, but its value
is still near the saturated value. The value of M at
Fig. 13.30. Hysteresis loop. this point (i.e. OB) is known as remanence, rehanent
magnetization or retentivity.
The value of B at this point is known as the residual induction. The retentivity gives the
state of permanent magnetization of the specimen.
On applying a reverse field the value of M falls and finally becomes zero. The abscissa OC
This is known as
represents the reversed magmetic field needed to demagnetize the specimen.
coercivity (or coercive field) of the material. If the graph is in between B and H, then it
must
be noted that the numerical value of H to make B = 0 is not the coercivity, as B =H (H + M
hence B = 0 for M = -Hand the magnetization M is left positive.
If the reverse field is further increased, a reverse magnetization is set up which quickly
reaches the saturation value. This is shown as CD. If H is now taken back from its negative
saturation value to its original positive saturation value, a similar curve DEFA
will be
traced. The whole graph ABCDEFA thus forms a closed loop, usually known as hysteresis
loop. The whole process described above and the property of
the iron characterized by it are called hysteresis. Hysteresis M
is the name for the lag of magnetization behind the magnetizing
field.
Demagnetization : It is clear from the hysteresis loop
that the intensity of magnetization M does not reduce to zero
on removing the magnetizing field H. M is zero when the
magnetizing field H is equal to the coercitive force. At these
points the magnetic induction is not zero, and the specimen
itis
is not demagnetized. To demagnetize a substance, time with
subjected to several cycles of magnetization each
reduced
decreasing magnetizing field and finally the field is
to zero. In this way the size of the hysteresis curve goes on Fig. 13.31. Demagnetization.
 PROPERTIES OF MATTER
M A G N E T I C

503
and the area finally reduces to zero.
Demagnetization is best obtained by placing
en in an alternating field of continuously
decreasing

the
specimen

diminishing amplitude. It is also obt

the 5ting, ferromagnetic materials becoming practically
nonmagnetic at sufficiently high
pera
t e m p e r a t u r e s

method for B- H Curve:

Ballistic The B- of specimen can be obtained by
Balyanometer method. In this method theHcurve
ballistic galvar
specimen is taken in the form of ring,
a
a
a

as
anchor ring.
known
Amagnetizing coil
is wound closely round
specimnen ring, forming the primary P of
the solenoid. The coil is connected
an endless
through a
reversing key K and two way key
K, to a circuit containing a
battery, an

ammeter A, a
rheostat R, and a resistance
P
can be removed from the circuit
R. The R'
the key K. Over a small part of
by pressing
primary of the solenoid,
a secondary coil S
which is connected
of few turns is wounded
in series with
ballistic galvanometer (B.G.),
and the
variable resistance R2, a
key K2
standard solenoid wwwww
secondary coil S" of the
having primary P'. The two way key K, may 13.32. Experimental arrangement for B-H
curve.

connect either, the primary

of the ring fig
ballistic galvanometer,a
standard solenoid. To damp the motion of
solenoid, or primary of the is shown in Fig. 13.32.
across it. The whole arrangement
apping key Kg is connected circumference of the
consists N, turns and the mean
If the primary of the ring solenoid i in the primary is
in the ring due to the current
ring is 1, then the magnetic fieid produced
given by .(122)
H N,i/l. of
flux which passes through the secondary
a magnetic
This magmetizing field produces material, N the number of
turns in the
flux density in the ring
oe
ring solenoid. If B is thecross section of the ring then the total flux linked with the secondary
BeCOndary and A the area of
= NBA. induced emf in the secondary
it sets up an
flux in the secondary, passing through
nis is the change of secondary circuit, then the charge
the
If R is the total resistance of
.(123)
the ballistic galvanometer
NBA/R.

galvanometer
coil, then .(123)
If ist first throw of the ballistic
/2).
=K® (1
+
primary of
NBA/R the standard
through the
q in the
current i' is passed turns per unit length
To eliminate.
eK
and à, the
known
is the
number of
corresponding flux
S0lenoida
solenoid by t
closing the key K, to
to the
the right. If n
ri will be n i'. The
H
the key K, solenoid the a r e a of c r o s s -
standard where A' is
primary, then the1
flux density in
the
turns will
thus be H,
n i"
(N°A),
in the magnetic
flux sends charge
nked h e secondary of N
with the This change
secondary of N tur first throw in
solenoid.
the
It 6' is
the
ection of
On of th
the Secondary of the standard the coil.
secon deflects

through Dallistic
galvanometer
which
... (124)
galvanometer coil, then Ni'A'/R =KO'(1
+ /2).

Charge
= Hn
 504
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETIS.
Dividing Eq. (123) by Eq. (124), we get
NBA N"i'A'9
o rB-Hon
HonNi'A NA 0
This is theexpression for magnetic induction in the specimen corresponding to the magnas
..125
intensity H, given by Eq. (122). netic
For the full cycle
of
is first closed to the left magnetization,
the following procedure
is to be followed The
by inserting a plug between ab gap and the resistances andkey
decreased until on closing the commutator K the R, R ar
the zero. The current galvanometer gives full scale deflection
fro
corresponding to this deflection is measured by an ammeter
and
as maximum current in the
main experiment.
is used
The residual magnetism in the
to zero as:
specimen is reduced
The galvanometer circuit is first
********=®** the resistances R, and R'are reduced to the
broken and
The current passing through the minimum.
b primary
solenoid is then reversed many times by means
of the ring
of the
commutator K, the resistances R, and R' are
increased
gradually simultaneously until the current becomes very
small.
The galvanometer is again
put in the circuit by
H key K. The key K' is closed and resistance is closinga
value corresponding to the maximum R, given
current. The
galvanometer first throw is thus noted. The values of B
and H, i.e., B, and
H, are thus calculated. The
corresponding point on the B-H curve is a. The
galvanometer circuit is again broken and the specimen
is again
Fig. 13.33. demagnetized by reversing rapidly the
commutator K as described before. The
galvanometer is again put in the circuit. Now R' is given a small value and is ballistic
decreases the current and thus the K opened. This
in magnetic induction B. magnetizing field H. This decrease in H produces a decrease

value of magnetising field

Corresponding to this decrease
B,-B, a throw 0 is observed. The
H, is calculated by
noting ammeter reading. The
on the graph (B H curve) is denoted
-
corresponding point
by the point b. This process is repeated
increasing R' until current and hence H becomes zero. The by gradually
readings is ac (Fig. 13.33). As after each measurement the graph corresponding to these
by the reversal of maximum current, hence point a works as specimen is returned to the state a
the reference point.
The cde of the graph is plotted by
repeating the process in many steps with the reverse
current. The point e is corresponding to the zero value of R". The part
symmetry or by repeating the experiment using e as the reference efga can be drawn by
commutator on the left, if it was on the right point and leaving the
previously
CRO Method for B H curve : Ballistic or anchor
-

ring method is
laborious. A simple method for B H curve is the use of CRO, on the quite tedious and
-

screen of which the

complete hysteresis loop can be displayed.
The experimental arrangement is shown in Fig. 13.34. In this arrangement the
is taken in the form of ring with specimen
primary and secondary windings P and S. A
supply is given to
 MAGNETICP R O
PROPERTIES OF MATT
505
an oscillator controlled by yoke. The
P f

signal of the primary is applied

r o m

currer
X-plates of CRO. The secondary
with a resistor R an
ding SSis
winding is connected
nding C in series. he voltage developed
C is amplified and then
capacitor

capacitor -

ssthe
Y-plates of CRO.
Voltage
a
across the
p p l i e d
amplifier
passing through the
The current
is measured with an
primary wir
arimary winding (A
a m m e t e r .

Itdirectly gives the value of H in

specimen.
The voltage drop the across
the of the
capacitor
is a measure magnetic
B. Let dB/dt be the rate of
induction

change
of magnetic
induction. Thevoltage
secondary Winding at any instant
across the
tis given by
Vs = KdB/dt, Fig. 13.34. B -

H curve with CRO.

and secondary turns and the
where K is
constant which depends on the number of primary
a
Since R and C are in series, the instantaneous
current i V(R + =

dimensions of the ring. Thus we may write

high, the capacitive inductance can be neglected.
1/oC). If R is kept very

i=Vs/R. written
the capacitor C may thus be
as
The voltage across

Void CR .
.(126)

of a CRO varies directly

the capacitor C and thus across the Y plates a c r o s s the X
Thus the voltage across
Thus H and B act
in the c o r e of the specimen. s c r e e n of the
as the magnetic induction with s e e n on the
B H c u r v e will be
well defined -

and Y-plates respectively. A

in
oscilloscope. the directions
of magnetization
Loss: In unmagnetized specimen,
specimen is placed
is zero. When this
ysteresis an
magnetization
different so that net magnetization is aligned
so that the
rent domains are these domains
are rotated under
magnetic field, is taken by the specimen
external and the energy back
leld direction. The
work is thus done boundaries do not
m o v e completely

h
this i e removed the
domain
Thus the energy is
not
the field is magnetism.
to th sS. When specimen
retains some
of energy of
each hysteresis
positions and the definite loss
reco ginal demagnetization
and there is always
a
g
hysteresis loss. the direction
loop. Th
This loss is known as an angle 0 with
energy domain which makes
cos 6 and
m sin ê
respectively.
moment of any o n e to Hare m
magnetio
magetic ofm along and L specimen will
be
etizing field H. The c o m p o n e n t s volume of the
in
The Summation Such t e r m s of all the
domains

of all:
andm sin 6, volume. As the
m cos
n
which
in unit
are
n we
domains, of m a g n e t i z a t i o n ,
where summation taken all the
1s
over
n
definition of M,
the intensity

magnetizatior.
have
izatioOn
is alo
salong H, hence from
the
 506 ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM

6 M and 2 m sin 0 = 0
Em cos =

dM = d[E m cos 0]= -2m sin 9 de.

when it is inclined at an
the restoring couple acting on the domain of moment m,
am.

As
to the H-direction is mB sin 0 (= mH sin 0). Hence the work done when it moves thra
ough
a small angle de is
dW = Ho mH sin 0 d 0.
2 Ho mH sin 0 do.
Work done per unit volume of the material =
(127)
If the intensity of magnetization M is increased to M + dM by increasing H to H+ du
then the work done per unit volume as M increases (or the dipoles are rotated more along H

i.e., 0 decreases) is given as

dW = - Po m (H + dH) sin 0 de.
.(128)
As dH and de both are very small, hence by assuming H
b
as constant, we get
dW = -2u,mH sin 0 de =-PH Em sin 6 d e = uHdM.
Work done per unit volume for a complete cycle of
magnetization

W HoHdM. ..(129)
H As B =" (H+ M), hence for constant magnetizing field
dB HdM.

Therefore, W = HdB. .(130)

Let us consider M -

H curve (or B -

H curve). At point near

o n the curve (Fig. 13.35) PQ represents H and PR
Fig. 13.35. M-H. loop.
represents a small change in M, i.e., dM (or dB). Hence
the area PQSR will represent HdM (or HdB), the work on
the material per unit volume. Thus the work done on the material per unit volume during
the path ab will be the sum of all such areas, i.e., area OabJO. When the material is taken
bJcb is
from b to e, or the magnetizing field is decreased to zero, the energy equal to the area
restored back per unit volume of the material. Thus the horizontally shaded areas represent
the work done by the material per unit volume, whilst the areas which are also vertically
of work
shaded represent the work done on the material per unit volume. Hence the excess
enclosed
done on the material over that done by it, per unit volume, is represented by the area
within the hysteresis loop abcdefa.
Work done per unit volume per cycle = Po X area of the M - H loop

Area of B-H loop.

A rough idea of the magnitude of hysteresis losses may be obtained from an empirica
formula of Steinmetz.
Work done or the energy loss per unit volume per cycle
.(131)
W = n (Bua, à
1s
in the loop, n, the Steinmetz coefficient,
where Bmar is the maximum magnetic induction K varies between 1.4 and 1.8 Or
constant varying from material to material. The exponent
value is 1.6.
the various ferromagnetic materials, most accepted