Unit 2

Magnetic materials

 Magnetic materials
Magnetic material are the substances which get magnetised in the magnetic field. They are
widely used in industrial electronics, entertainment electronics and computer industry.
Basics parameters to remember (Home Assignment)
Magnetic field:
Magnetic dipole:
Magnetic flux density or magnetic induction (B):
Magnetic field strength or field intensity (H):

Permeability of free space (µ0):

Magnetic permeability (µ):

Magnetization or intensity of magnetization (µ):

Magnetic susceptibility (χm):

Origin of Magnetization using Atomic Theory
The magnetization in a material originates from the magnetic moments of individual atoms.
This atomic magnetic moments arises from three sources,
(i) The orbital motion of electron: Each electron orbit can be considered as a current
loop, generating a small magnetic field and having a magnetic moment along its
axis. The magnetic moment of the atom due to an electron orbital motion is written
as
M = n (eh / 4Π me)

where, µB = (eh / 4Π me)

is the least value of magnetic moment called Bohr Magneton, the value of which
is 9.27 x 10 -24.
(ii) The spin of electron: Each electron spin is about its own axis. This gives rise to
spin magnetic moment along the axis of spin.
(iii) The spin of the nucleus: the nucleus of the atom also spins about its own axis. Due
to its heavy mass, the magnetic moment is very small about 10-3 times that of an
electron. Hence, it is negligible as compared to electron magnetic moment.

Thus for an electron,

The total magnetic moment = orbital magnetic moment + spin magnetic moment
Classification of magnetic materials on the basis of susceptibility value
There are three types of magnetic materials,
(i) Diamagnetic materials:
 Materials which are not having any permanent magnetic dipole moment are
diamagnetic materials.
 In these substances the individual magnetic moment vectors are randomly oriented and
the resultant magnetic moment is zero.
 An external magnetic field can cause rotation of the individual magnetic moment
vector. This field rise to an induced magnetic field opposite to the applied field in such
a manner that the magnetic induction drops to zero. Hence, as we know
B = µ0 (H + M), becomes
0 = µ0 (H + M)
and χm = - (M / H)
 Examples of diamagnetic materials are Gold, Germanium, Silicon, etc

(ii) Paramagnetic materials:

 Materials which are having a permanent magnetic dipole moment are paramagnetic
materials.
 In these substances the magnetic dipole moment vectors are oriented in such a manner
that there exists a small permanent magnetic moment even in the absence of an external
magnetic field.
 When placed in a magnetic field, the dipoles tend to get aligned with the field which
leads to an increase in the magnetic flux density inside it as shown in above figure.
 Paramagnetic materials have very small positive susceptibility χ ranging from 10-5 to
10-2.
 Examples : Aluminium, Chromium, Sodium.
 (iii) Ferromagnetic materials:
 Materials which are having a permanent magnetic dipole
moment are ferromagnetic materials.
 In these substances the magnetic dipole moment vectors
align themselves parallel to each other as shown in figure.
This gives rise to permanent magnetic moment.
 As a result of this on the application of even small external
magnetic field H a large magnetization µ is produced.
 The magnetic susceptibility, χ is written as
B = χm M
and can be as high as 106.

Microstructures of Ferromagnetic Solids

Weiss Domain theory:
 Weiss proposed a molecular field theory to explain
ferromagnetism. He introduced the domain theory where
the ferromagnetic material is considered to be divided in
to a large number of small regions called domains. Each
domain is magnetised to its saturation magnetization.
 The domains are microscopic. Thus in a macroscopic
piece of magnetic material there will be a large number
of domains which have different magnetization
orientations.
 The magnitude of the magnetization for the entire solid is
the vector sum of magnetization of the individual
domains.
 In a non-magnetized specimen, as shown in figure below, the direction of the magnetic
moments of the domains are so randomly distributed that the material as a whole has a
zero magnetization. In the external field, the domains having magnetic dipole moment
in the direction of the field grow whereas the other domains shrink in size as shown in
figure.
 For a large magnetic field the individual magnetic dipole moments of all domains tend
to align themselves with the applied field. This result in an increase in the net dipole
moment of the material, as shown in the figure.
 With very high applied magnetic field the individual magnetic dipole moments of all
the domains get aligned. As a result all the domains merge into a single domain with a
single magnetic dipole moment vector i.e., the net magnetic moment.
Hysteresis & Hysteresis Loss:
Hysteresis
 Hysteresis is a characteristic of all ferromagnetic materials. Even though the relation B
= μ0 (μ + H ) holds good for all magnetic materials the relationship between B and H
depends on the history of previous magnetization for a ferromagnetic material.

 The Hysteresis curve shows the behaviour of the magnetic induction (B) with the
variation of the magnetizing field (H).

 The Hysteresis curve indicates the energy utilized by ferromagnetic material in the
alignment of the magnetic moments of different domains and adjusting the shape and
size of the domains with the variation of the magnetizing field

The Hysteresis curve as shown in fig. can be explained as follows.

Path O to A : If initially unmagnetized specimen of ferromagnetic material is subjected

to an increasing magnetic field, the magnetic induction (B) increases with the
magnetizing field (H) and reaches a saturation value Bs This happens according to the
fig. 3.16 where Bs is achieved at fig 3.16 (d).

Path A to M: As the magnetizing field H decreases the magnetic induction B also

decreases but does not follow the same path. As H decreases to zero B retains a value
Br’ called the remanent induction.
This is due to the resistance offered by the material to readjust. The magnetic dipole
moment vectors and the shape and size of the domains.

Path M to N: As H is reversed B decreases to zero at the coercive magnetic field, -

HC.
 Path N TO P: When H is decreased beyond -HC, due to the readjustments of the
domains the magnetic induction attains a saturation at -BS.

Path P TO Q: Along this path as the field H is reduced to zero the induction vector
does not drop to zero, but retains a value -Br.

Path Q TO T: The magnetic induction B drops to zero at the coercive field HC.

Path T to A: As H increases beyond HC, due to the domains readjustments B again

reaches saturation value BS.

 The shape of hysteresis loop varies from material to material. Some ferrites have an
almost rectangular hysteresis loop. These materials are used in digital computers as
magnetic information storage device.

 Hysteresis loss: During the process of magnetizing of ferromagnetic material, a loss of

energy is always involved in aligning the magnetic moments of the domains along the
applied magnetic field. When the direction of an external magnetic field is reversed, the
absorbed energy is not completely recovered and the rest energy is lost in the form of
heat. This loss of energy is called hysteresis loss.

 The energy lost per unit volume of the ferromagnetic material in one magnetization
demagnetization cycle is given by the area under the hysteresis curve and is written as
W

W=∮
Calculation of Hysteresis loss
 Consider a unit volume of the ferromagnetic substance which has N magnetic domains.
 Let µm be the magnetic moment of each magnetic domain and each magnetic domain
makes angle θ with the direction of the magnetizing field H. so the total magnetic
moment along H is the intensity of magnetization.
M = ∑ μm cos
 Since there is no magnetization perpendicular to H, the total magnetic moment
perpendicular to H is
∑ μm sin = 0

therefore, dM = - ∑ μm sin
is the small decrease in the intensity of magnetization with a small change dθ.

 The work done in rotating the magnetic moment vector μm through the elementary
angle dθ is

dW = - µ0 ∑ μm H sin
= µ0 H dM
 Now, B = µ0 (H + M)
So, dB = µ0 (dH + dM)
 The work done per unit volume of a substance in a complete cycle is
W=∮ = µ0 ∮

= µ0 ∮ ( − dH) = ∮

Since, ∮ =0
W=∮

 Hence, work done = Energy loss

= area under B-H curve (hysteresis loop)

Soft and Hard Magnetic Materials and their uses

Soft Magnetic Materials:
 Magnetic materials which are easily magnetized or demagnetized are called soft
magnetic materials.
 These materials offer a small resistance to magnetization and hence the domains
expands and shrinks very easily to orient the magnetic moment vectors.
 A small magnetic field is required to magnetize soft magnetic materials.
 Examples: Iron, Silicon alloys, Nickel- iron alloys, Iron-Cobalt alloys.

Soft magnetic material Hard Magnetic material

Properties of Soft magnetic materials,
 The hysteresis loop is narrow and steep.
 The coercitivity and retentivity (Br and Hc values respectively) are small.
 The susceptibility and permeability values are large.
 The resistivity is very high and hence soft magnetic materials have low eddy current
loss.
 Since the area under the hysteresis loop is small, the magnetic energy loss is low.
Hard Magnetic Materials:
 These materials show high resistance to magnetization and demagnetization.
 In the microstructure of these materials, the domains are very rigid to orient the
magnetic moments along the applied field.
 Hence, a sufficiently strong magnetic field is required to magnetize these materials.
 Examples: Carbon steels, tungsten steel, chromium steel, etc.
 The behaviour of these materials is shown in the above figure.
 The properties of these materials are
(i) The hysteresis loop is very broad.
(ii) The coercitivity and retentivity values are large.
(iii) The susceptibility and permeability values are low.
(iv) The eddy current loss is very high.
(v) Since the area under the hysteresis loop is very large the magnetic energy loss
(hysteresis loss) is large.
Magnetic Circuits and Microscopic Ohm’s Law
In a magnetic field, the path followed by the magnetic flux is called the magnetic circuit.
EMF = MMF
Resistance = reluctance
Things to remember: (Home assignment)
i. Electromotive force
ii. Magneto motive force
iii. Resistance
iv. Reluctance

Reluctance is defined as the ratio of the drop of the magneto motive force to the flux produced
in any part of the circuit. It is written as

S = µ /ɸ Amp-turns / weber

where, ɸ = magnetic flux

hence, mmf = reluctance x flux
This law is called Ohm’s law of magnetic circuits and may be compared with ohm’s law of
electric circuits.
Emf = resistance x current
Thus, MMF replaces EMF, reluctance replaces resistance and flux is equivalent to current.
Unit-2
Dielectrics
 Introduction
Materials such as glass, ceramics, polymers and paper are non-conducting materials. They
prevent flow of current through them. When the main function of the non-conducting
material is to provide electrical insulation, they are called Insulators. When non-
conducting materials are placed in electric field, they modify electric field and they
themselves undergo appreciable changes as a result of which they act as store of electric
charges. When charge storage is the main function, the materials are called Dielectrics.

 Dielectrics
Dielectric, insulating material or a very poor conductor of electric current. When dielectrics are
placed in an electric field, practically no current flows in them because, unlike metals, they
have no loosely bound, or free, electrons that may drift through the material. Instead, electric
polarization occurs.
Dielectric materials have high electrical resistance (~ 1010
– 1020 Ω) because they possess large energy gap (> 3eV).
There are no free electrons in a dielectric because the
transition of electrons from valence band to conduction
band is not possible under ordinary conditions.

 Dielectric Constant
A quantity measuring the ability of a substance to store electrical energy in an electric field, is
called dielectric constant.

It is denoted by εr.

It can also be defined as, the ratio of absolute permittivity of the medium (ε) and the
permittivity of free space (ε0).

i.e. εr = ε /ε0
Since it is a ratio, it is a dimensionless quantity and has no unit. Here ε0 = 8.854 x 10-12 F/m,
is called permittivity of free space. The relative permittivity of air is unity.
Dielectric constant in terms of Capacitance
Let us consider a parallel plate capacitor connected to dc voltage source, V0. The source charges
the capacitor plates till the potential difference across the plates builds to V0. Let the charges
on the plates be +Q0 and –Q0, when the potential difference is V0.
V

The capacitance C0 is related to the quantity of charge stored on either plate. It is given by

= ………………. (1)

Now, let the plates of the capacitor be disconnected from the voltage source V0. The circuit is
open and there is no path by which energy can flow. The magnitude of the charge Q0 on either
plate must remain constant. Suppose now a dielectric in the form of a rectangular parallelepiped
is inserted between the plates, and it completely fills the space between the plates. It is found
that the potential difference V0 decreases to a value V.
When the dielectric slab is pulled out, the potential difference returns to the original value V0.
Thus it is concluded that the original charges on the plates have not been affected by the
introduction of the dielectric and the value of capacitance increased from C0 to C in the
presence of dielectric.

= ………………. (2)

Let us write = ………………. (3)

 = = = 0
/

 = ………………. (4)
εr is a dimensionless quantity which is always greater than unity in case of dielectrics regardless
its shape and size. It is called dielectric constant or relative permittivity.
For a parallel plate capacitor, the capacitance is given by,
ε0
= … … … … … … . (5)

Where ε0 = 8.85 x 10-12 F/m is the permittivity of the free space, A is the area of either plate
and d is the separation between the plates.
In place of parallel plate capacitor completely filled with a dielectric, the capacitance is
ε0
= … … … … … … . (6)

Energy stored in a capacitor

Work is done when two equal and opposite charges are separated. The work done is stored in
the form of electric and potential energy. A capacitor is charged by a voltage source, at the
expense of its energy. The work done by the voltage source is given by

= =

As the electric field E0 is constant between the plates, the energy density U0, which is the stored
energy per unit volume, will be constant. Thus,

= = = ( )2

When a dielectric medium is present between the plates, the energy density is given by
1
2

Induced charges
The electric field E0 in the region between the capacitor plates is given by,

E0 =

According to a theorem of Gauss, the flux of the electric field E0 through a closed surface is
equal to the algebraic sum of the charges enclosed by this surface divided by . It follows that

E0 =
Where, is the magnitude of surface charge density on either plate.
When the dielectric is introduced between the plates, there occurs a reduction in potential
difference across the plates. It implies the reduction in the electric field strength E0 in the
region, which can occur only when there is a reduction in the charge on the plates. As charges
cannot leak off the plates, the reduction in the electric field strength suggests that the effect of
some of the original charges is annulled by the charges of opposite sign appearing on the two
surfaces of the dielectric. This dielectric is said to be polarized. The induced surface charge on
the dielectric give rise to an induced electric field Ei which opposes the external field E0.
Therefore, the net electric field E in the dielectric has a magnitude given by
E = E0 – Ei
The induced electric field Ei is related to the induced charge density σp through the relation
Ei = σp / ε0
The net surface charge density that contributes to the electric field E within the dielectric is
(σ - σp). Applying Gauss theorem, we get
−
=

Since C/ C0 = σp, it follows that

1
=

Therefore, E= = =

Therefore, = 1−

 Polarization
The process of formation of atomic dipoles inside a dielectric material under the influence of
an external electric field is called polarization. For a dielectric slab inserted between the plates
of a parallel plate capacitor. Imagine that the dielectric is divided into a large number of
identical cells of volume dV. The intensity of polarization P is defined as the total dipole
moment per unit volume of the material. Thus,

P=∑ =∑ ………………………. (1)

The magnitude of polarization is directly proportional to the intensity of the electric field.
P = χ ε0 E …………………………. (2)
χ is the proportionality constant and is called the dielectric susceptibility of the material.
Dielectric susceptibility characterizes the ease with which a dielectric material can be
influenced by an external electric field.
Let the surface charge density be σp and the distance between the plates be d, which is the
thickness of the slab. Thus the dipole moment of the entire slab is given by
µ = (A σp ) d = σp V …………………………. (3)

or, P = σp = …………………………. (4)

 P = σp …………………………. (5)
where A is the area of the slab and V is the volume.

Field Vectors
The effective field E in the dielectric is given by

E = E0 – Ei = −

 ε0 E = σ – σp
or using eq. (5) ε0 E = σ – P …………………………. (6)

Relation between εr and χ

We can rewrite Eq. 6 as,
P = σ – ε0 E = ε0 εr E – ε0 E

 P = ε0 E (εr – 1) …………………………. (7)

Comparing Eq. 2 and Eq. 7,
χ = (εr – 1)

 εr = 1 + χ …………………………. (8)

A molecule can be considered as a distribution of positive and negative charges. Molecule may
be classified as (i) polar molecule and (ii) non-polar molecule. In non-polar molecule center of
gravity of positive and negative charges coincides, the molecule has no resultant charge and
zero dipole moment. A polar molecule is one which has a permanent electric dipole moment,
albeit the total amount of positive and negative charges on the molecule are equal and the
molecule is electrically neutral, but the distribution of the two kinds of charges are different,
such that positive and negative charges are centered at points separated by a distance of
molecular dimensions, forming a dipole moment.
 When two opposite charges +q and –q are separated by a distance d, then a dipole is formed
and its dipole moment is given by qd. In a molecule q will be of the order of magnitude of
electric charge, that is, of the order 10–10 e.s.u., while d will be of the order of the molecular
dimensions 10–8 cm (one Angstrom unit). The dipole moment, usually represented by the
symbol , is thus of the order of magnitude 10–18 e.s.u. The unit 10–18 e.s.u. is called a debye,
and dipole moments are commonly measured in debye, abbreviated as D. The magnitude of
the dipole moment depends on the size and symmetry of the molecule. Molecules having center
of symmetry are non-polar, while molecules having no center of symmetry are polar.

 Polar and non-polar dielectrics

Dielectrics can be classified into two categories,

(i) Polar dielectrics:

 In polar dielectrics the centres of positive and negative charges are separated within the
dimension of a molecule. Hence each molecule behaves as a dipole. These are
permanent electric dipoles with permanent dipole moment.
 In the absence of external electric field these dipoles are randomly oriented resulting in
zero net dipole moment of the dielectric material.
 When electric field is applied, these dipoles align themselves along the field giving rise
to an induced dipole moment.
 Hence, polar molecules have permanent as well as an induced dipole moment.
(ii) Non-polar dielectrics
 In non-polar dielectrics the molecules do not behave as a dipole and do not have a
permanent dipole moment, in the absence of an electric field.
 In the presence of an electric field the centres of the positive and negative charges are
displaced within the dimension of the molecule creating a dipole.
 Hence, the molecule acquires an induced dipole moment when an external electric field
is applied to it.
  Polarizability and its types

Polarizability: Ability of the material to get polarized is polarizability.

There are three basic type of polarization/polarizability.

(i) Electronic polarization (Pe)

 In an external field, centres of the positively charged nucleus and the negatively charged
electron cloud of the atom undergo a small displacement with in the dimension of an
atom. Hence, an atomic dipole is formed and is called electronic polarization.
 The electronic polarization vector is written as
Pe = N αe E …………………………. (8)
where, αe = electronic polarizability

Electronic polarization-atoms are not polarized when E = 0,

electronic polarization results from the distortion of electron
cloud by an applied electric field

 Electronic polarization is observed in almost all dielectrics.

 The electronic polarization sets in over a very short period of time, of the order of
10-14 to 10-15.
 The contribution of Pe to the dielectric constant may be obtained as follows.

εr = 1 + χ = 1 + =1+

εr = 1 + …………………………. (9)

 In case of monoatomic gas it is found that the electronic polarization is given by,

αe = 4Π ε0 R3 …………………………. (10)

εr = 1 + 4Π N R3…………………………. (11)

where R represents the radius of the atom.

(ii) Ionic polarization (Pi)
 In ionic dielectrics the positive and the negative ions are alternately placed. Each ionic
pair act as a dipole but due to symmetry in the ionic arrangement the net dipole moment
of the substance is zero.
 On the application of an external electric field the cations and anions suffer relative
displacement from their equilibrium positions. This results in a net dipole moment and
the dielectric material becomes polarized. This is called ionic polarization.
 Ionic polarization is observed in ionic dielectrics like NaCl, KCl etc.if the direction of
the applied field is reversed, the ions shift oppositely which causes the change in the
dipole moment.
 The induced dipole moment is proportional to the electric field and is given by
Pi = N αi E …………………………. (12)
where, αi = ionic polarizability
 In addition to ionic polarization the ions experience electronic polarization, as well.
 It takes 10 -11 to 10 -14 s to build up, and is not influenced by temperature.

(iii) Orientational polarization (Po)

 This polarization is exhibited by polar dielectrics. In the absence of an external field
the permanent dipoles are randomly oriented and the net dipole moment of the dielectric
is zero.
 When an electric field is applied on the dielectric, the molecular dipoles tend to align
themselves along the direction of the field. This results in a polarization of the
dielectric, and is called orientational polarization.
Po = N αo E …………………………. (12)
where, αo = orientational polarizability
 The orientational polarization is strongly temperature dependent. At high temperature
the alignment of the dipoles becomes difficult resulting in a low polarization.
 The orientation polarizability αo is calculated to be,

αo = …………………………. (13)

Po = …………………………. (14)
 Which states that the orientation polarization is inversely to the temperature and
proportional to the temperature and proportional to the square of the permanent dipole
moment.

Total polarization
In a material which can experience all forms of polarization, the total polarizability is equal to
the sum of the electronic, ionic and orientation polarizabilities.
α = αe + αi + αo

α = αe + αi + …………………………. (15)

Total polarization may be expressed as

P = Pe + Pi + Po …………………………. (16)
Total polarization of a polar dielectric is therefore given by
2
P = N αe + αi + 3 E …………………. (17)
Internal fields in Solids (Lorentz equation for dielectric materials)
Consider a dielectric material and is subjected to external field of intensity E1. The charges
are induced on the dielectric plate and the induced electric field intensity is taken as E2. Let
E3 be the field at the centre of the material. E4 be the induced field due to the charges on the
the spherical cavity. The total internal field of the material is

Now consider the Electric field intensity applied E1

Substituting the Electric flux density D in E1, we get

E2 is the Electric field intensity due to induced or polarized charges

Here the charge is induced due to the induced field so the the electric flux density D changes
to the electric polarization P

Since we have considered that the specimen is non polar dielectric material, at the center of the
specimen the dipole moment is zero and hence the electric field intensity at the center is zero
due to symmetric structure.

Now consider a circle from the centre of the dielectric material. In order to calculate the electric
field intensity E4 on the surface of spherical cavity, the polarization should be calculated by
resolving it into two components.
 As we know the polarization P is the induced charge per unit area

++++++
++ +A
Here the polarization changes to its component we have
divide in the figure a and the charge changes to dq where the

_+ +  d r area of cross section changes to ds

_
E_ __p
r R

___ ____
q
dA

Now this equation can be solved by finding out the values of the charge dq in the surface are
ds. We know the Electric field intensity E

Multiplying with the cosine angle on both the sides we get

Now by applying all the present condition for the above equation we

Now substituting the charge dq in the above equation we get

In the above equation ds should be calculated. Consider the spherical cavity and mark the points
R and Q on the sphere of radius 'r' as shown in the above figure and drop vertical line from Q
and mark it as S. By applying the surface area of a sphere formula we get,
Now consider the right angled triangle OQS from the figure

Now substituting the values RQ and QS in the surface area we get,

Now substituting all the values in the electric field intensity on the spherical cavity E4 we
get,

Integrating with in the limits 0 to π

On solving the integration we get,

So the total electric field

 Hence the Internal field obtained is

Clausius Mossoti Equation

It gives the relation between the dielectric constant and the ionic polarizability of atoms in
dielectric material. If there are N number of atoms, the dipole moment per unit volume which
is called Polarization is given by,

we know internal field

From above equations

we know polarization from the relation between polarization and dielectric constant

from the above two equations we get,

The above equation is known as Clausius-Mosotti equation which is valid for non-polar solids
having cubic crystal structure.
Ferroelectrics and Piezoelectrics
There are two types of dielectric materials,
Active dielectrics: These are the dielectrics which are used to generate, amplify, modulate and
modify electrical signals. This type of materials can store electrical energy.
Examples: Ferroelectrics, Piezoelectrics (a type of ferroelectric material).

Passive dielectrics: These are used as insulating materials to resist electric current.
Examples: Ceramics, mica etc.

Ferroelectrics
 Ferroelectrics are the materials which exhibit electric polarization even in the absence
of an external electric field. This polarization is called spontaneous polarization.
 Ferroelectric materials are polar dielectrics.
 The dielectric constant of a ferroelectric material is temperature dependent and is given
by
εr = - C/ (T - Tc) (for T > Tc)
where C is the curie constant, Tc is the curie temperature, and T is the temperature of the
dielectric in K.
 Examples: Rochelle salt, barium titanate, potassium phosphate etc.

 Things to remember
 Curie temperature (Tc): Curie temperature is the temperature at which certain
magnetic materials undergo a sharp change in their magnetic properties.
 Curie Constant (C): The Curie constant is a material-dependent property that relates
a material's magnetic susceptibility to its temperature.

 Applications of Ferroelectric materials

(i) Ferroelectric energy converter is used to convert heat energy into useful electrical
energy.
(ii) These materials are used in microphones.
(iii)Ferroelectrics are used in the manufacturing of high storage small capacitors.
(iv) These are useful as memory devices in computers.
Piezoelectrics
 Some of the ferroelectrics, being subjected to mechanical stress become polarized and
polarization charges appear on its surface.
 The polarization of a dielectric as a result of mechanical deformation is called direct
piezoelectric effect.
 The direction of polarization is perpendicular to the direction of the mechanical stress.
 If the direction of the mechanical stress is reversed, the direction of polarization
becomes opposite.
 Examples: quartz, tourmaline etc.
 Due to polarization a small voltage is developed across the dielectric. The direction of
the voltage depends on the direction of the stress as shown in Figure.

 If a small voltage is applied on a piezoelectric specimen, it undergoes a kind of

mechanical stress which is reversed when the applied voltage changes its direction. This
is called Inverse Piezoelectric effect.

 Applications of Piezoelectrics
(i) Inverse Piezoelectric effect is widely used in ultrasonic generator.
(ii) Quartz is used in ultrasonic transducer, watches, clocks, gas stove lighters etc.