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Exam Tip
Both the atomic number and the mass number are given on the Periodic Table but it can
be easy to confuse them.Think MASS = MASSIVE, as the mass number is always the
bigger of the two numbers, the other smaller one is thus the atomic / proton number.
Defining Isotopes
Isotopes are atoms of the same element that contain the same number
of protons and electrons but a different number of neutrons.
The symbol for an isotope is the chemical symbol (or word) followed by a dash
and then the mass number.
So C-14 is the isotope of carbon which contains 6 protons, 6 electrons and 14 - 6
= 8 neutrons.
Industrial uses
Electron Shells
Electronic structure
We can represent the structure of the atom in two ways: using diagrams
called electron shell diagrams or by writing out a special notation called
the electronic configuration
Electrons orbit the nucleus in shells (or energy levels) and each shell has a
different amount of energy associated with it
The further away from the nucleus then the more energy a shell has.
Electrons occupy the shell closest to the nucleus which can hold only 2 electrons
and which go in separately
When a shell becomes full electrons then fill the next shell
The second shell can hold 8 electrons and the third shell can also
hold 8 electrons and the electrons organise themselves in pairs in these shells
The outermost shell of an atom is called the valence shell and an atom is much
more stable if it can manage to completely fill this shell with electrons
Electronic configuration
Period: The red numbers at the bottom show the number of notations which is 3,
showing that a chlorine atom has 3 shells of electrons
Group: The green box highlights the last notation which is 7, showing that a chlorine
atom has 7 outer electrons
The atoms of the Group 8/0 elements all have 8 electrons in their outer shells,
with the exception of helium which has 2. But since helium has only 2 electrons in
total and thus the first shell is full (which is the only shell), it is thus the outer shell
so helium also has a full valency shell
All of the noble gases are unreactive as they have full outer shells and are thus
very stable
All elements wish to fill their outer shells with electrons as this is a much more
stable and desirable configuration
Note: although the third shell can hold up to 18 electrons, the filling of the shells follows
a more complicated pattern after potassium and calcium. For these two elements, the
third shell holds 8 and the remaining electrons (for reasons of stability) occupy the fourth
shell first before filling the third shell.
Bonding: the Structure of Matter
Types of Substance & Properties
Elements, compounds and mixtures
Element
A substance made of atoms that all contain the same number of protons (one
type of atom) and cannot be split into anything simpler
There is a limited number of elements and all elements are found on the Periodic
Table
Eg hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen
Compound
(CO )
2
Mixture
Properties of nonmetals
Describing Alloys
Alloys are mixtures of metals, where the metals are mixed together but are not
chemically combined
They can be made from metals mixed with nonmetals such as carbon
Alloys often have properties that can be very different to the metals they
contain, for example they can have
more strength, hardness or resistance to corrosion or extreme temperatures
Alloys contain atoms of different sizes, which distorts the regular arrangements
of atoms
This makes it more difficult for the layers to slide over each other, so they are
usually much harder than the pure metal
Brass is a common example of an alloy which contains 70% copper and 30%
zinc
The Formation of Ions
Ions
Metals: all metals lose electrons to other atoms to become positively charged
ions
Non-metals: all non-metals gain electrons from other atoms to become
negatively charged ions
Electrostatic attraction
The positive and negative charges are held together by the strong electrostatic
forces of attraction between opposite charges.
This is what holds ionic compounds together
Explanation
Sodium is a group 1 metal so will lose one outer electron to another atom to gain
a full outer shell of electrons.
A positive sodium ion with the charge +1 is formed.
Chlorine is a group 7 non-metal so will need to gain an electron to have a full
outer shell of electrons.
One electron will be transferred from the outer shell of the sodium atom to the
outer shell of the chlorine atom.
A chlorine atom will gain an electron to form a negatively charged chloride ion
with a charge of -1.
Explanation
Magnesium is a group 2 metal so will lose two outer electrons to another atom to
have a full outer shell of electrons
A positive ion with the charge +2 is formed
Oxygen is a group 6 non-metal so will need to gain two electrons to have a full
outer shell of electrons
Two electrons will be transferred from the outer shell of the magnesium atom to
the outer shell of the oxygen atom
Oxygen atom will gain two electrons to form a negative ion with charge -2
Covalent compounds are formed when electrons are shared between atoms
Only non-metal elements participate in covalent bonding
As in ionic bonding, each atom gains a full outer shell of electrons
When two or more atoms are chemically bonded together, we describe them as
‘molecules’
Ionic & Covalent Compounds
Ionic compounds
o Have high melting and boiling points so ionic compounds are
usually solid at room temperature
o Not volatile so they don't evaporate easily
o Usually water-soluble as both ionic compounds and water are polar
o Conduct electricity in molten state or in solution as they have ions that
can move and carry a charge
Covalent compounds
o Have low melting and boiling points so covalent compounds are
usually liquids or gases at room temperature
o Usually volatile which is why many covalent organic compounds have
distinct aromas
o Usually not water-soluble as covalent compounds tend to be nonpolar but
can dissolve in organic solvents
o Cannot conduct electricity as all electrons are involved in bonding so there
are no free electrons or ions to carry the charge
Electron Arrangement in Complex Covalent Molecules
Each carbon atom bonds with four other carbons, forming a tetrahedron
All the covalent bonds are identical and strong with no
weak intermolecular forces
Diamond thus:
o Does not conduct electricity
o Has a very high melting point
o Is extremely hard and dense (3.51 g/cm )3
Graphite
Each oxygen atom forms covalent bonds with 2 silicon atoms and each silicon
atom in turn forms covalent bonds with 4 oxygen atoms
A tetrahedron is formed with one silicon atom and four oxygen atoms, similar as
in diamond