Applied Physical Science

APPLIED PHYSICAL SCIENCE
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MODULE INTRODUCTION
Physical science module is designed to equip the learner with knowledge, skills
and attitude to enable them conduct their research project and participate in
nutrition and health related studies.
The prerequisite modules include; Principles of human nutrition.
The module takes 70 contact hours: 36 hours for theory and 34 hours for
practical’s.
Learners undertaking this module will have both theory and practical
assessments. The formative assessment will be in the form of continuous
assessment tests, assignments, clinical and field assessments and
promotional/end of semester examination whereas summative assessment will
be done in form of final qualifying examination.
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Module competences
Designed to enable the learner acquire skills and apply the understanding of
physical sciences in delivery of health and nutrition services
Module outcomes
By the end of this, the learner should be able to:
1. Demonstrate understanding of the basic principles of physical science

2. Discuss the roles of physical science in nutrition and dietetics
3. Apply knowledge and skills gained in physical science to nutrition and
dietetics
4. Explain the physical and chemical nature of substances used in
nutrition and dietetics
5. Observe safety precautions in the working environment
Module learning strategies

Lecture, small group discussions; demonstration; skill lab technique;
simulation; special study entity and educational visits
Module learning logistics/resources

Laptop computer; projector; white board; markers and science laboratory
Module assessment
Formative 40%
Summative 60%
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UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICAL SCIENCE
Unit objectives
By the end of this unit, the learner should be able to;
1. Define the various terms as relates to physical science
2. Outline the structure of atoms for various elements
1.1 DEFINITIONS
 Physical Science: the study of the physical world, the natural world
 Chemistry: the study of the composition, properties and transformations of
matter.
 Matter: anything that occupies space and has mass.
 Elements: basic building blocks of all other forms of matter.
 Atoms: small particles derived from one the elements. All matter can be
described in terms of the interactions of atoms with each other.
 Molecules (compounds): combination of two or more atoms. Most common
form for atoms.
1.2 ATOMIC STRUCTURE

All substances are made from atoms. There are just over one hundred different
types of atom, called elements. Atoms can join together in millions of different
combinations to make all the substances on Earth and beyond.
Structure of the atom
Every atom is made of a nucleus consisting of protons and neutrons. The

nucleus is surrounded by electrons. Protons and electrons are oppositely
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charged. Neutrons have no charge. This means the nucleus of an atom is
always positively charged. An atom has a neutral overall charge because it has
the same number of electrons as protons. Protons and neutrons have the
same mass and accounts for nearly all of the mass of the atom. Electrons have
such a small mass that this can usually be taken as zero. The atomic number
(also called the proton number) is the number of protons in an atom. The mass
number (also called the nucleon number) is the total number of protons and
neutrons in an atom.
This information can be given simply in the form:
Atomic Number (Z) The # of protons

Mass Number (A) [The # of protons] + [the # of neutrons]
The number of neutrons in an atom can vary within small limits. For example,
there are three kinds of carbon atom 12C, 13C and 14C. They all have the same
number of protons, but the number of neutrons varies.
protons Neutrons mass number
carbon-12 6 6 12
carbon-13 6 7 13
carbon-14 6 8 14
These different atoms of carbon are called isotopes. The fact that they have
varying numbers of neutrons makes no difference whatsoever to the chemical
reactions of the carbon.
Isotopes are atoms which have the same atomic number but different mass
numbers. They have the same number of protons but different numbers of
neutrons.
E.g. 2 Isotopes of chlorine
Isotope ProtonsElectronsNeutrons
17 17 35 - 17 = 18
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17 17 37 - 17 = 20
Comparing the charge and mass of electrons, protons and neutrons

ProtonNeutronElectron
Charg +1 0 -1
e
Mass 1 1 0.0005 (almost zero)
The negatively charged electron is attracted to the positively charged nucleus
by a Coulombic attraction. The protons and neutrons are held together in the
nucleus by the strong nuclear force. These two forces hold the atom together.
1.3 ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION

The electronic structure of an atom is a description of how the electrons are
arranged. It can be shown as numbers or as a diagram.
Working out the number of electrons
Atoms are electrically neutral, and the ‘positivity’ of the protons is balanced by
the ‘negativity’ of the electrons. It follows that in a neutral atom:
number of electrons = number of protons
So, if an oxygen atom (atomic number = 8) has 8 protons, it must also have 8
electrons; if a chlorine atom (atomic number = 17) has 17 protons, it must also
have 17 electrons.
The arrangement of the electrons
The electrons are found at considerable distances from the nucleus in a series
of levels called energy levels. Each energy level (or shell) can only hold a certain
number of electrons. The first level (nearest the nucleus) will only hold 2
electrons, the second holds 8, and the third also seems to be full when it has 8
electrons. The pattern gets more complicated after the third level. (Find out
more relating to the arrangement of electrons after the 3 rd level)
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These levels can be thought of as getting progressively further from the
nucleus. Electrons will always go into the lowest possible energy level (nearest
the nucleus) - provided there is space.
To work out the electronic arrangement of an atom
 Look up the atomic number in the Periodic Table - making sure that you
choose the right number if two numbers are given. The atomic number
will always be the smaller one.
 This tells you the number of protons, and hence the number of electrons.
 Arrange the electrons in levels, always filling up an inner level before you
go to an outer one.
E.g. to find the electronic arrangement in chlorine
 The Periodic Table gives you the atomic number of 17.
 Therefore there are 17 protons and 17 electrons.
 The arrangement of the electrons will be 2, 8, 7 (i.e. 2 in the first level, 8
in the second, and 7 in the third).
The electronic arrangements of the first 20 elements
After this the pattern alters as you enter the transition series in the Periodic
Table.
Two important generalizations
If you look at the patterns in this table:
 The number of electrons in the outer level is the same as the group
number. (Except with helium which has only 2 electrons. The noble
gases are also usually called group 0 - not group 8.) This pattern extends
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throughout the Periodic Table for the main groups (i.e. not including the
transition elements).
So if you know that barium is in group 2, it has 2 electrons in its outer level;
iodine (group 7) has 7 electrons in its outer level; lead (group 4) has 4 electrons
in its outer level.
 Noble gases have full outer levels meaning they are stable elements.
Electron configuration diagram for lithium

Take lithium for example. The diagram shows each energy shell as a circle
around the nucleus, with each electron represented by a dot. In the exam, do
not worry about coloring in the electrons. Just make them clear and ensure
they are in the right place. Sometimes you will be asked to use a cross rather
than a dot.
The electronic configuration for lithium is written as 2.1 (showing that lithium
atoms have three electrons, two in the first shell and one in the second shell).
The table describes the electronic structures of four more elements.
Electronic structures of elements
Element Numeric Electrons Periodic

format table
group
F 2.7 Fluorine atoms have nine electrons. Group 7
Two of these fit into the first energy
shell. The remaining seven fit into
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the second energy shell.
Ne 2.8 Neon atoms have ten electrons. Two Group 0 -
of these fit into the first energy shell. that is, the
The remaining eight electrons fit into eighth
the second energy shell. Because its group
highest occupied energy shell is full,
neon is stable and unreactive.
Stable: Atoms are stable if their

outer shell contains its maximum
number of electrons.
Na 2.8.1 Sodium atoms have 11 electrons. Group 1
Two of these fit into the first energy
shell, eight into the second energy
shell. The last one fits into the third
energy shell.
Ca Calcium atoms 1have 20 electrons. Group 2

2.8.8.2 Two of these fit into the first energy
shell, eight into the second energy
shell, another eight into the third
energy shell. The last two fit into the
fourth energy shell.
1.4 ATOMIC SPECTRA

When atoms are excited they emit light of certain wavelengths which
correspond to different colors. The emitted light can be observed as a series of
colored lines with dark spaces in between; this series of colored lines is called
a line or atomic spectra. Each element produces a unique set of spectral
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lines. Since no two elements emit the same spectral lines, elements can be
identified by their line spectrum.
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UNIT 2: PERIODIC TABLE
Unit objectives
By the end of this unit, the learner should be able to;
1. Explain the trends in the periodic table

2. Outline the physical and chemical properties of elements in the periodic
table
2.1 INTRODUCTION TO PERIODIC PROPERTIES

Elements are presented in ascending order i.e. increasing atomic number and
organized by period (row) and group (column), with the period corresponding to
the principle energy level (left to right), and the group relating to the extent the
subshells are filled. The periodic table consists of seven rows called periods,
and 18 columns called groups or families.
2.2 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ELEMENTS

The properties of the elements within a period vary across the periodic table in
predictable ways, while the elements within a group have similar properties.
The properties of an atom relate directly to the number of electrons in
various orbitals, and the periodic table is much like a road map among those
orbitals such that chemical properties can be deduced by the position of an
element on the table. The electrons in the outermost shell are especially
important because they can engage in the sharing and exchange that is
responsible for chemical reactions i.e. they determine the element’s valence.
Using periodic trends, the periodic table can help predict the properties of
various elements and the relations between properties. The properties of an
atom depend ultimately on the number of electrons in the various orbitals, and
on the nuclear charge which determines the compactness of the orbitals.
Physical properties are the characteristics can be observed
without changing the substance into another substance. Physical properties of
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matter are usually those that can be observed using our senses. The
observations usually consist of some type of numerical measurement.
Examples of Physical properties include Color, Freezing point, Boiling point,
Melting point, Density and Smell. E.g. the melting point of water is 0 0C
(temperature at which the solid for of the element or compound is at
equilibrium with the liquid form) whereas its boiling point is a 100 0C
(temperature at which the liquid form of an element or compound is at
equilibrium, with the gaseous form)
Chemical properties are the characteristics that determine how it
will react with other substances or change from one substance to another.
Chemical properties, or characteristics, which are exhibited as one substance
and then chemically transformed into another. Chemical properties are only
observable during a chemical reaction. Reactions and changes to substances
can be brought about by Burning, Rusting, Heating, Exploding and Tarnishing.
For purposes of our course, our concentration will be on the first 20 elements
of the periodic table as highlighted in an earlier section of this unit.
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2.3 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES/REACTIONS
A lithium atom has two electrons orbiting in an inner shell and only one
electron orbiting in its outer shell. The outer shell is incomplete, and therefore
unstable. Li atoms readily give up one electron to form positively charged,
Li+ ions. These ions have the same stable electron configuration as the noble
gas helium.
All Group 1 atoms can lose one electron to form positively charged ions
(cations). For example, potassium atoms do this to form ions with the same
electron configuration as the noble gas argon.
Group 2 atoms lose two electrons to form positively charged ions. For example,
magnesium atoms form Mg2+ ions. These have the same electron configuration
as the noble gas neon.
Most elements in Group 3 lose three electrons to form 3+ ions. Boron, however,
shows little tendency to form ions. It obtains a noble gas structure by sharing
electrons with other atoms. This is called covalent bonding.
Elements in Groups 15, 16 and 17, find it easier to gain electrons than lose
them. For example, oxygen atoms gain two electrons to form O2-ions. These
ions are negatively charged (anions). These have the same electron
configuration as the noble gas neon.
Elements in Group 14 could lose four, or gain four electrons to achieve a noble
gas structure. In fact, if they are going to form ions, Group 14 elements form
positive ions. Carbon and silicon form covalent bonds. Carbon's millions of
organic compounds are all based on shared electrons in covalent bonds.
Many elements can form covalent bonds depending on the circumstances. For
example, the bonding in water, H20, is mainly covalent; and while chlorine is
bonded to sodium ionically in sodium chloride, it bonds to carbon covalently in
carbon tetrachloride.
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A chemical property describes the tendency of a substance to transform into a
new substance. During this transformation, atoms rearrange themselves into
new configurations. For instance, we have mentioned above that atoms in
group/family 1 lose an electron to form positively charged ions, cations. In
conclusion, a physical change imposes a new set of conditions on the same
material while a chemical change forms a new material with its own unique set
of physical properties. E.g. a physical to demonstrate physical properties, water
can be subjected to extremely low temperatures that it forms ice i.e. liquid to
solid. To demonstrate a chemical change, hydrogen ions can combine with an
oxygen ion to form an entirely new substance i.e. water.
Sample questions
3. Melting a piece of gold would be? Physical change
4. Tarnishing a piece of silver would be? Chemical change
Elements vs. Compounds
An element is a material made of only one kind of atom. E.g. pure gold is made
up of only gold atoms.
A compound is a substance consisting of atoms of different elements. E.g.
Sodium Chloride NaCl, Ammonia NH3 and water H2O. Compounds have
properties uniquely different from the elements from which they are made.
A chemical formula is used to show the proportion by which elements combine
to form a compound.
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Compounds are named starting with the element farthest to the left in the
periodic table and for the element to the right, a suffix –ide is added. However,
some compounds have several possible combinations e.g. Carbon can react
with oxygen to CO or CO2. In such a situation, a prefix is added to both
compounds to eliminate ambiguity i.e. carbon monoxide and carbon di-oxide.
Example 2, hydrogen can react with oxygen to form H2O or H2O2 i.e.
dihydrogen monoxide or dihydrogen dioxide. However in such a situation,
common names are used to describe the compounds i.e. water and hydrogen
peroxide.
Sample question
1. What is the name of the compound with the formula CBr4? Carbon
tetrabromide
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UNIT 3: STRUCTURE AND BONDING
Unit objectives
By the end of this unit, the learner should be able to:
1. List the types of bonds

2. Draw the structures of simple molecules
3.1 INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURE AND BONDING

There are three main properties of chemical bonds that must be considered—
namely, their strength, length, and polarity. The polarity of a bond is the
distribution of electrical charge over the atoms joined by the bond. The
strength of a bond is the measure of energy required to break it i.e. to separate
the bonded atoms. The length of a bond s the distance between the centers of
two covalently bonded atoms. It is determined by the number of bonded
electrons.
Atoms bond together through their electrons. The electrons that participate in
chemical bonding are the ones in the outermost shell of an atom. These
electrons are referred to as valence electrons. E.g. sodium, Na, atomic
number 11, has only one valence electron. The number of valence electrons
and how they behave in an atom (whether lost or gained) determines the ion
charge.
Chemical bonds form when two atoms approach each other and the attractive
forces are greater than the repulsive forces. Other factors involved in bond
formation other than attraction and repulsive forces include; interatomic
distance, shapes of orbitals in atoms and molecules, the number of valence
electrons available in the bonding atoms and the relative energies of the
orbitals involved in bond formation.
3.2 TYPES OF BONDS

There are three types of strong/primary bonds:
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 Ionic
 Covalent
 Metallic
Some substances contain either a combination of a covalent and an ionic bond
or an intermediate (in-between).
Other weak/secondary bonds include dipole-dipole interaction, hydrogen
bonding, and London dispersion forces.
1. Ionic bonding
It is an electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions. One or more
electrons are transferred from the outer shell of one atom to the outer shell of
another atom. The charge of an ion depends on the number of electrons the
atom needed to loose or gain to achieve a full outer shell. The overall charge of
a compound formed through ionic bonds must be zero.
Properties of ionic compounds
i) High melting and boiling points because of strong attractive forces
between ions in the lattice (an organized crystalline structure of ions that
are packed together when an ionic compound is formed). The stronger
the bonds, the higher the boiling point.
ii) Conduct electricity when molten (liquefied/heated) or dissolved in water.
Example: What is the chemical formula for a compound made of aluminum
ions, Al3+, and oxygen ions, O2-? Al2O3
What is the chemical formula for a compound made of magnesium ions, Mg 2+,
and oxygen ions, O2-? MgO.
The chemical formula shows the ratio by which atoms combine.
2. Covalent bonding
It is the type of electrical attraction in which atoms are held together by their
mutual attraction for shared electrons or it is the electrostatic attraction
between a pair of electrons and positively charged nuclei.
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There are two electrons (1 pair of electrons) within a single covalent bond. A
covalent bond is represented using a straight line. E.g. F-F
The number of covalent bonds an atom can form equals its number of unpaired
valence electrons.
Multiple covalent bonds
 Single bond: One shared electron pair with one electron from each atom.
-
 Double bond: Two shared electron pairs with two electrons from each
atom. =
 Triple bond: Three shared electron pairs with three electrons from each
atom.≡
The more pairs of electrons there are in a covalent bond; the shorter the bond
length and the stronger the bond.
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3. Metallic bond
It is the sharing of electrons between many atoms of a metal element. Atoms in
a metal compound share a big pool of valence electrons between many metal
atoms. This pool of valance electrons is known as a sea of electrons or
delocalized electrons. Metallic bonding provides metals with a unique set of
properties. Metals are malleable (substance can be shaped) and ductile
(stretched into thin wires, such as those used for electricity) and good
conductors of heat and electricity. They are also able to conduct electricity,
which means that electrons can move freely through them.
3.3 VANDERWAALS FORCES
Even when two atoms that are near one another will not bind, they will still
attract one another. This phenomenon is known as the Vanderwaals
interaction. The Vanderwaals forces cause a force between the two atoms. This
force becomes stronger, as the atoms come closer together. However, when the
two atoms draw too near each other a rejecting force will take action, as a
consequence of the exceeding rejection between the negatively charged
electrons of both atoms. As a result, a certain distance will develop between the
two atoms, which is commonly known as the Vanderwaals radius. Through
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comparison of Vanderwaals radiuses of several different pairs of atoms, we
have developed a system of Vanderwaals radiuses, through which we can
predict the Vanderwaals radius between two atoms, through addition.
Phases of matter
• Solid Matter (ice) – attraction between particles is strong enough to hold
all the particles together in a fixed 3D arrangement (particles can only
vibrate)
• Liquid Matter (water) – attraction between particles is not as strong and
it takes on a fluid character by taking the shape of its container
(particles slip past each other and bounce around
• Gaseous Matter (vapor) - attraction between particles can no longer hold
them together and will fill whatever space is available (particles move
very fast)
Density
• A measure of the compactness of a solid, liquid, or gas
• The amount of matter per unit volume:
– Density = Mass / Volume
– Grams / Cubic Centimeter or Kilograms / Cubic Meter
– Which is usually more dense:
• Solid
• Liquid
• Gas
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UNIT 4: CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
Unit objectives
By the end of the unit, the learner should be able to:
1. Write chemical formulae of various compounds

2. Balance chemical equations
4.1 WRITING CHEMICAL FORMULAE OF COMPOUNDS

A chemical equation is a written representation of a chemical reaction, showing
the reactants and products, their physical states, and the direction in which
the reaction proceeds.
Writing chemical formulae of compounds
During a chemical reaction, one or more compounds are formed as a result of
the rearrangement of atoms i.e. reactants to form products. This means that
one or more substances undergo a chemical change to produce new
substances.
Reactants Products
A chemical change occurs when a substance’s composition changes.
Indicators of chemical change
i) Change in temperature
ii) Change in color
iii) Noticeable odor (especially after the reaction has begun)
iv) Formation of a precipitate
v) Formation of bubbles
Types of chemical reactions
1) Precipitation/double-replacement reaction
It is a reaction that occurs when aqueous solutions of anions and cations
combine to form a compound that is insoluble. The insoluble solid is known as
a precipitate and the remaining liquid a supernate.
2) Acid-base reaction
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It occurs when an acid and a base are mixed. An acid produces the H+ in
solution whereas a base is a substance that produces OH+ ions in a solution. A
typical acid-base reaction will produce an ionic compound called a salt and
water.
3) Oxidation-reduction (redox reactions)
It occurs when the oxidation number of atoms involved in the reaction are
changed (increase/decrease). In oxidation, the atom’s number is increased i.e.
electrons are lost. Reduction is the decrease in an atom’s oxidation number i.e.
electrons are gained. The atom undergoing oxidation is called the reducing
agent (gains electrons) and the atom undergoing reduction is the oxidizing
agent (losses electrons)
OIL RIG (oxidation is loss of electrons, reduction is gain of electrons).
LEO GER (loss of electrons is oxidation, gain of electrons is reduction).
4) Combustion reaction
It is a type of redox reaction in which a fuel reacts with an oxidizing agent,
resulting in the release of energy as heat. Such reactions are exothermic (heat
is given off during a reaction). And endothermic reaction is one in which heat is
absorbed.
5) Synthesis reactions
Occurs when one or more compounds combines to form a complex compound.
6) Decomposition reactions
Opposite of synthesis. It occurs when a more complex compound breaks down
to form multiple simple compounds.
7) Single replacement reactions
A type of redox reaction in which an element in a compound is replaced by
another element.
Law of mass conservation
The law of mass conservation dictates that no atoms are gained or lost during
any reaction. In other words, matter cannot be created or destroyed, only
changed. Therefore, the number of atoms appearing before the arrow should
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always be equal to the number of atoms appearing after the arrow. This
knowledge is used in balancing chemical reactions.
A chemical equation is a shorthand way of indicating what is going on in a
chemical reaction.
Writing a balanced equation.
Word equations
In most chemical equations, phase symbols are used to denote the state of
matter the substances in the equation are e.g. (g) for gaseous state, (s) for solid
state, (aq) for aqueous/water solution state and (l) for liquid state.
4.2 BALANCING CHEMICAL EQUATIONS

It is guided by the law of mass conservation i.e. an equation is balanced when
the number of atoms of each type present is the same on both sides of the
equation.
This can be done in one of the two ways. Namely:
- By observation to assign appropriate coefficients to the compounds
involved in a given reaction.
- By using a mathematical method whereby a set of mathematical
equations are derived for each element from assigned generic coefficients
denoted in alphabets. E.g.
Balance the following equation
Start by assigning generic coefficients i.e.
From this, a set of mathematical equations can be derived since the number of
each element should be equal on each side of the equation e.g.
a=c
4a=2d
2b=2c+d
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If we choose the solution where a =1 we then get that c = 1 also. If a = 1 then,
by the second equation, we get that d is equal to 2. If c =1 and d = 2, then, by
the last equation, b = 2. If we replace the generic/alphabet coefficients with the
integers got from the calculation, we then get a balanced equation as below.
Importance of a balanced chemical equation

1. To determine how much (moles and grams) of products can be made
from a known amount of reactants.
2. To determine how much reactants (moles and grams) will be used to
make a known amount of products.
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4.3 STOICHIOMETRY
It is the quantitative study of chemical reactions. It is the use of balanced
chemical equations to calculate amounts of reactants and products. When two
chemicals react with each other, we want to know how many atoms or
molecules of each are used so that a formula of the product can be used.
Mole – it is the counting unit (SI measure of quantity) used to indicate the
number of atoms, ions, molecules or formula units present in a particular
chemical sample.
Avogadro’s number - One mole of each and every substance contains the same
amount of particles. To make this easier, a convenient unit of matter that
contains a known number of particles has been defined i.e. 1 mole= 6.022 x 10
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particles. This is commonly known as the Avogadro’s number.
Molar mass – this is the mass of one mole of a given substance. The units for
molar mass are grams/mole. The molar mass of atoms of any element is equal
to the atomic mass in grams.
E.g. 1 mole of sodium weighs 22.99g.
In molecules (containing more than one elements in the chemical formula), the
term molecular mass is used instead of atomic mass. To determine the
molecular mass of a molecule, the atomic masses of the elements making up
the molecule are added up.
E.g. CCl4 = 1 C atomic mass 12.001g
4 Cl atomic mass 4(35.4527 g/mol)
Total = 153.81 g/mol.
Therefore, 1 mole of CCl4 = 153.81 g.
To determine the number of moles of a given substance, the amount of that
substance (given in grams) is divided by the molar mass of (measured in g/mol)
as shown in the formula below.
*sample questions in your books*
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Factors affecting reaction rates of chemical reactions
The reaction rate is the speed at which reactants form products. It is affected
by
i) Temperature
Increase in temperature increases rate of reaction. This is due to the increase
in kinetic energy which increases the force of colliding molecules such that
they are able to easily break the bonds and form new products.
ii) Concentration
Reaction rates increase with concentration as the number of reacting
molecules increases therefore increasing the likelihood of collision to form the
products.
iii) Catalysts
A catalyst lowers the activation energy (minimum amount of energy that
reactant molecules must gain in order to transform to products) which allows
for a reaction to take place at a quicker rate.
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UNIT 5: REDOX REACTIONS
Unit objectives
1. Define various terms as relates to redox reaction

2. List the types of reactions
3. Calculate and determine possible redox reactions
5.1 DEFINITION OF TERMS

Redox reaction – a reaction in which electrons are transferred from one atom
to another
Oxidation – loss of electrons from atoms of a substance
Ex – Na  Na+ + e-
Sodium is oxidized
Reduction – gain of electrons by atoms of a substance
Ex – Cl2 + 2e-  2Cl-
Chlorine is reduced
*Memory technique* LEO GER (Loss of Electrons is Oxidation, Gain of
Electrons is Reduction)
Oxidized
Ex – 2K (s) + Br2 (g)  2KBr (s)
Reduced
Oxidizing agent – substance that oxidizes another substance

Reducing agent – substance that reduces another substance by losing
electrons
Examples of redox chemistry:
 Silver tarnishing
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 Hydrogen peroxide on a wound
 Photography
 Chlorine bleach to whiten laundry
Oxidation numbers/Oxidation states
Oxidation number/oxidation state - number of electrons lost or gained by
the atom when it forms ions; written with a “+” or “-“sign before the number
In the description of redox reactions, we said that they involve a net change in
the atomic/ionic charge (oxidation number changes).
Rules of assigning oxidation numbers

1. The oxidation number of an atom is zero in a neutral substance that
contains atoms of only one element. Thus, the atoms in O2, O3, P4, S8,
and aluminum metal all have an oxidation number of 0.
2. The oxidation number of simple ions is equal to the charge on the ion.
The oxidation number of sodium in the Na+ ion is +1, for example, and
the oxidation number of chlorine in the Cl- ion is -1.
3. The oxidation number of hydrogen is +1 when it is combined with
a nonmetal as in CH4, NH3, H2O, and HCl.
4. The oxidation number of hydrogen is -1 when it is combined with
a metal as in. LiH, NaH, CaH2, and LiAlH4.
5. The metals in Group IA form compounds (such as Li3N and Na2S) in
which the metal8 atom has an oxidation number of +1.
6. The elements in Group IIA form compounds (such as Mg 3N2 and CaCO3)
in which the metal atom has a +2 oxidation number.
7. Oxygen usually has an oxidation number of -2. Exceptions include
molecules and polyatomic ions that contain O-O bonds, such as O 2, O3,
H2O2.
8. The elements in Group VIIA often form compounds (such as AlF3, HCl,
and ZnBr2) in which the nonmetal has a -1 oxidation number.
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9. The sum of the oxidation numbers in a neutral compound is zero e.g. the
sum of the oxidation number of all atoms in a molecule e.g. H 2O=0.
H2O: 2(+1) + (-2) = 0
10. The sum of the oxidation numbers in a polyatomic/complex ion is
equal to the charge on the ion. The oxidation number of the sulfur atom
in the SO42- ion must be +6, for example, because the sum of the
oxidation numbers of the atoms in this ion must equal -2.
SO42-: (+6) + 4(-2) = -2
11. Elements toward the bottom left corner of the periodic table are
more likely to have positive oxidation numbers than those toward the
upper right corner of the table. Sulfur has a positive oxidation number in
SO2, for example, because it is below oxygen in the periodic table.
SO2: (+4) + 2(-2) = 0
The 7 diatomic elements

Diatomic molecules consist of two atoms bonded together. In
contrast, monatomic elements consist of single atoms (e.g., Ar, He). Many
compounds are diatomic, such as HCl, NaCl, and KBr. There are seven
diatomic elements. They are: Hydrogen (H2), Nitrogen (N2), Oxygen (O2),
Fluorine (F2), Chlorine (Cl2), Iodine (I2), Bromine (Br2). For ease of
remembrance, you say Have No Fear of Ice Cold Beer.
Common acids
An acid is that which donates protons/hydrogen ions in a chemical species. An
acid accepts electrons i.e. oxidizing agent.
The most common acids include, acetic acid (HC2H3O2), hydrochloric acid
(HCL), Sulphuric acid (H2SO4), nitric acid (HNO3), carbonic acid (CH2O3),
phosphoric acid (H3PO4)
Common polyatomic ions and acids
*Separate handout common anions and cations*
Steps for balancing redox reactions:
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1. Write a chemical equation.
2. Determine oxidation number of each element.
3. Draw a line to connect the atoms involved in oxidation and another line
connecting the atoms involved in reduction. Write the half reaction for
each on the line.
4. Balance the charges for redox reaction.
5. Balance equation.
Sample questions for redox reactions
What is the oxidation state of chromium in Cr2+?
The oxidation number of monoatomic ions is simply, the charge on the ion.
E.g. Cr2+, its oxidation state is +2 (remember to indicate the + sign in front of
it).
What is the oxidation state of chromium in CrCl 3?
The oxidation number of a neutral compound is 0. E.g. CrCl3. So if we were to
find the oxidation state of one of the ions making up the compound, like let’s
say chromium, the equation would be:n + 3(-1) = 0
N.B: chlorine has an oxidation state of -1 from the rules we noted as it is an
element in group VII.
And on calculation, the value for n would be +3.
You will realize that assigning the appropriate + or – sign is important to get
the correct value.
What is the oxidation state of chromium in Cr(H 2O)63+(hexaaquachromium (III)
ion)?
This is an ion and so the sum of the oxidation states is equal to the charge on
the ion. There is a short-cut for working out oxidation states in complex ions
like this where the metal atom is surrounded by electrically neutral molecules
like water or ammonia.
The sum of the oxidation states in the attached neutral molecule must be zero.
That means that you can ignore them when you do the sum. This would be
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essentially the same as an unattached chromium ion, Cr 3+. The oxidation state
is +3.
What is the oxidation state of chromium in the dichromate ion, Cr 2O72-?
The oxidation state of the oxygen is -2, and the sum of the oxidation states is
equal to the charge on the ion. Don't forget that there are 2 chromium atoms
present.
2n + 7(-2) = -2
n = +6
What is the oxidation state of copper in CuSO4?
The compound contains copper ions and sulphate ions, SO42-. To make an
electrically neutral compound, the copper must be present as a 2+ ion. The
oxidation state is therefore +2.
Using oxidation states
1. In naming compounds
You will have come across names like iron (II) sulphate and iron (III) chloride.
The (II) and (III) are the oxidation states of the iron in the two compounds: +2
and +3 respectively. That tells you that they contain Fe 2+ and Fe3+ ions.
This can also be extended to the negative ion. Iron (II) sulphate is FeSO 4. There
is also a compound FeSO3 with the old name of iron (II) sulphite. The modern
names reflect the oxidation states of the sulphur in the two compounds.
The sulphate ion is SO42-. The oxidation state of the sulphur is +6. The ion is
more properly called the sulphate (VI) ion.
The sulphite ion is SO32-. The oxidation state of the sulphur is +4. This ion is
more properly called the sulphate (IV) ion. The ‘ate’ ending simply shows that
the sulphur is in a negative ion.
So FeSO4 is properly called iron (II) sulphate (VI), and FeSO3 is iron (II)
sulphate (IV). In fact, because of the easy confusion between these names, the
old names sulphate and sulphite.
2. in identifying what’s been oxidized and what’s been reduced
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Solution to questions above.
3. to determine if a reaction is a redox reaction

4. to balance chemical equations
When balancing redox reactions, make sure that the number of electrons lost
by the reducing agent equals the number of electrons gained by the oxidizing
agent.
Two methods can be used in balancing redox reactions
 Oxidation number method
In this
- Assign oxidation numbers to all elements in the reaction
- From the changes in O.N., identify the oxidized and reduced species
- Compute the number of electrons lost in the oxidation and gained in the
reduction from the O.N. changes
- Multiply one or both of these numbers by appropriate factors to make
the electrons lost equal the electrons gained, and use the factors as
balancing coefficients
- Complete the balancing by inspection, adding states of matter
e.g.
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*Assig
n ON to all elements
* identify oxidized and reduced species. Al was oxidized >+3, H2SO4 was
reduced +1>0.
* compute e- lost and e- gained. 3e- lost from Al, 1e- gained by H.
* multiply the factors to make e- lost equal to e- gained and use the factor as
co-efficient as appropriate.
*Complete the balancing by inspection.
 Half-reaction method
*ASSIGNMENT: practice balancing redox reactions by the half-reaction
method*
Practice determining oxidation numbers:
1. KBr
2. MgCl2
3. HClO3
4. Na2Cr2O7
5. Fe(NO3)3
6. Na2SO3
7. Ca(ClO)2
Recall – redox reactions involve a transfer of electrons from one atom to
another
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Ex. Zn + Cu+2  Zn+2 + Cu
Special redox reactions
*Metal reducing another metal.
Write the half-reactions:
Zn  Zn+2 + 2e- oxidation
Cu+2 + 2e-  Cu reduction
The more active the metal, the more easily the metal loses electrons
(oxidizes). Electrons flow from the oxidized metal to the reduced metal.
Example: Use an arrow to indicate the direction of electron flow in these pairs:
1. Fe/Cu 2. Hg/Ca 3. Zn/Na
Reduction is the gain of electrons.

Reduction potential - the tendency of an object to gain electrons.
Ex. Ag+ + Al  Ag + Al+3
Sample questions
Arrange the following compounds in order of increasing oxidation state for the
carbon atom.
(a) CO
(b) CO2
(c) H2CO
(d) CH3OH
(e) CH4
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UNIT 6: INTRODUCTION TO ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Unit objectives
1. List the classes of organic compounds and the characteristics of carbon

2. Calculate and determine the empirical and molecular formulae of carbon
compounds
3. Give the IUPAC name for various organic compounds
Organic chemistry is the branch of chemistry that deals with the study of
carbon compounds with the exception of simple compounds e.g. carbonates
(CO32-), carbon dioxide (CO2) and carbon monoxide (CO). Carbon can form more
compounds than any other element because carbon atoms are able to form
single, double and triple carbon-carbon bonds, but also to link up with each
other in chains and ring structures.
6.1 CLASSES OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

They are distinguished according to the functional group they contain. A
functional group is a group of atoms that is largely responsible for the chemical
behavior of the parent molecule
 Hydrocarbons - These include alkanes, with the general molecular
formula CnH2n+2 where n is an integer; alkenes, represented by CnH2n;
alkynes, represented by CnH2n−2; and arenes e.g. propane, propene,
propyne.
 Halogen substituted alkanes, alkenes and arenes - these include alkyl
halides and aryl halides
 Oxygen containing organic compounds - may be divided into two main
types: those that contain at least one C–O bond, which include alcohols,
phenols (derivatives of benzene), and ethers, and those that contain a
carbonyl group (C=O), which include aldehydes, ketones, and carboxylic
acids e.g. propanone
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 Carboxylic acid derivatives - compounds in which the OH of the –CO 2H
functional group is replaced by either an alkoxy (–OR) group, producing
an ester, or by an amido (–NRR′, where R and R′ can be H and/or alkyl
groups), forming an amide.
 Nitrogen containing organic compounds – they include amines; nitriles,
which have a C≡N bond; and nitro compounds, which contain the –
NO2 group. The table below show the different classes of organic
compounds.
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Basic guidelines in the naming of simple organic compounds
The IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry)
system/nomenclature is used in naming of organic compounds.
 Find the longest (parent) carbon chain in the molecule. This will give you
the base of the name. E.g. the table below shows the names of alkanes
based on the number of carbon atoms.
No of C atoms Name
1 Meth-ane
2 Eth-ane
3 Prop-ane
4 But-ane
5 Pent-ane
6 Hex-ane
7 Hept-ane
8 Oct-ane
9 Non-ane
10 Dec-ane
 Determine the principle functional group and its position.

Principal functional Formula Ending becomes
group
Alkane C-C (single bond) -ane
Alkene C=C (double -ene
bond)
Alkyne CC (triple bond) -yne
Alcohol -OH -anol
Aldehyde -CH=O -anal
Ketone >C=O -anone
Carboxylic acid -COOH -anoic acid
Where necessary, the position is indicated by numbering the carbons in the
main chain except for alkanes, aldehydes and acids.
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 Secondary functional groups are given in alphabetical order, with their
position along the chain at the beginning of the name. In addition,
numbers are used to give the positions of groups or bonds along the
chain.
6.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF CARBON

 It is a member of group 14 on the periodic table, it is nonmetallic and
tetravalent i.e. the four electrons are available to form covalent bonds
(single, double and triple). These long covalent bonds are strong and stable.
This allows carbon to form an infinite number of compounds.
 It is a solid and sublimes at 3,6420C (it has the highest sublimation point of
all the elements).
 It exists in different forms i.e. it has several allotropes presenting a wide
range of physical properties. E.g. diamond is the hardest naturally
occurring substance, is transparent, an electrical insulator and thermal
conductor while graphite is one of the softest substances known, is opaque,
a good lubricant, a good conductor of electricity and a thermal insulator.
 Carbon has an affinity for bonding with other small atoms including other
carbon atoms.
 At standard temperature and pressure, it resists oxidation; it does not react
with sulfuric acid, hydrochloric acid, chlorine, or any alkali metals.
 At higher temperatures, carbon will react with oxygen to give carbon oxides,
and metals to give metal carbides.
 It has two stable naturally occurring isotopes: carbon-12 and carbon-
13. Carbon 12 is the most abundant.
CALCULATIONS OF EMPIRICAL AND MOLECULAR FORMULAE OF CARBON COMPOUNDS
The empirical formula of a compound is defined as the formula that shows the

simplest ratio of elements present in the compound, but not the actual
numbers of atoms found in the molecule. The ratios are denoted by subscripts
next to the element symbols. The most common approach to determining a
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compound’s chemical formula is to first measure the masses of its constituent
elements.
Example
Glucose has a molecular formula of C6H12O6. It contains 2 moles of hydrogen
for every mole of carbon and oxygen. The empirical formula for glucose is
CH2O.
The molecular formula of ribose is C5H10O5, which can be reduced to the
empirical formula CH2O.
How to determine empirical formula
1. Begin with the number of grams of each element, which you usually find
in an experiment or have given in a problem.
2. To make the calculation easier, assume the total mass of a sample is 100
grams, so you can work with simple percentages. In other words, set the
mass of each element equal to its percent. The total should be 100
percent. (assume mass of sample of compound is 100g)
3. Convert the grams into moles i.e. use the molar mass you get by adding
up the atomic weight of the elements from the periodic table to convert
the mass of each element into moles. (determine # of moles of each
element in the compound)
4. Find the mole ratios i.e. divide each mole value by the small number of
moles you obtained from your calculation.
5. Round each number you get to the nearest whole number. The whole
numbers are the mole ratio of elements in the compound, which are the
subscript numbers that follow the element symbol in the chemical
formula.
Sometimes determining the whole number ratio is tricky and you'll need to use
trial and error to get the correct value. For values close to x.5, you'll multiply
each value by the same factor to obtain the smallest whole number multiple.
For example, if you get 1.5 for a solution, multiply each number in the problem
by 2 to make the 1.5 into 3.
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If you get a value of 1.25, multiply each value by 4 to turn the 1.25 into 5.
Consider a sample of compound determined to contain 1.71 g C and 0.287 g H.
The corresponding numbers of atoms (in moles) are:
1 mol C
1.71 g C x = 0.142mol C
12.01 g C
1 mol H
0.287 g H x = 0.284mol H
1.005 g H
Thus, we can accurately represent this compound with the formula
C0.142H0.248. Of course, per accepted convention, formulas contain whole-
number subscripts, which can be achieved by dividing each subscript by the
0.248
smaller subscript: i.e. =2
0.142
Therefore, the empirical formula of the compound is thus CH2.
NB: this may or may not be the compound’s molecular formula (discussed
below).
The empirical formula can also be derived from percent composition
For example
The bacterial fermentation of grain to produce ethanol forms a gas with a
percent composition of 27.29% C and 72.71% O.
what is the empirical formula for this gas?
At all times, the scale of percentage (derived from the Latin phrase per centum
meaning by 100) is 100. This make calculation more convenient to calculate
the mass of elements present in a sample weighing 100g.
Therefore this sample produces 27.29 grams carbon and 72.71 grams oxygen.
Calculate the number of moles of each atom i.e.
1mol C
27.29g C ( ) = 2.272mol C
12.01 g
1mol O
72.71g C ( ) = 4.544mol O
16.00 g
To determine the tentative empirical formula, divide each of the molar masses
by the lesser of the two.
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4.544 g O
=2
2.272
2.272c
=1
2.272
Therefore, the tentative empirical formula is CO2.
6.3 CALCULATION OF MOLECULAR FORMULA FROM EMPIRICAL FORMULA

Note that the empirical formula gives only the relative numbers of atoms in a
substance in the smallest possible ratio while the molecular formula gives the
absolute/actual number of atoms of each kind present per molecule.
Calculation of molecular formula from empirical formula involves multiplying
the subscripts in the empirical formula by a number of formula units (n). n is
derived from comparing the molecular mass of a given compound (usually
provided in a problem) with its empirical formula mass. i.e.
molecular mass
= n (number of formula units)
empririacl formulamass
Example 1
Calculate the molecular formula of caffeine, a compound found in coffee, tea,
and cola drinks that has a marked stimulatory effect on mammals. The
chemical analysis of caffeine shows that it contains 49.18% carbon, 5.39%
hydrogen, 28.65% nitrogen, and 16.68% oxygen by mass, and its
experimentally determined molar mass is 196 g/mol.
Solution
Step 1 Determine the empirical formula of caffeine. Begin by dividing the mass
of each element in 100.0 g of caffeine (49.18 g of carbon, 5.39 g of hydrogen,
28.65 g of nitrogen, 16.68 g of oxygen) by its molar mass. This gives the
number of moles of each element in 100 g of caffeine.
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Then obtain the relative number of atoms of each element present in the least
amount i.e.
Round to the nearest integer to get the empirical formula as C4H5N2O

To determine the number of formula units (n) to multiply the subscripts of the
empirical formula with to get the molecular formula, divide the measured molar
mass of caffeine (196g/mol) with the calculated empirical formula mass
(calculated by adding the atomic masses of the individual elements) as below
So the molecular formula for caffeine is (C4H5N2O) 2= C8H10N4O2

SAMPLE QUESTIONS
1. Caffeine has the following percent composition: carbon 49.48%,
hydrogen 5.19%, oxygen 16.48% and nitrogen 28.85%. Its molecular
weight is 194.19 g/mol. What is its molecular formula?
The empirical formula:
Carbon: 49.98 g ÷ 12.011 g/mol = 4.16
Hydrogen: 5.19 g ÷ 1.008 g/mol = 5.15
Nitrogen: 28.85 g ÷ 14.007 g/mol = 2.06
Oxygen: 16.48 g ÷ 15.999 g/mol = 1.03
Carbon: 4.16 ÷ 1.03 = 4.04 = 4
Hydrogen: 5.15 ÷ 1.03 = 5
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Nitrogen: 2.06 ÷ 1.03 = 2
Oxygen: 1.03 ÷ 1.03 = 1
The empirical formula is therefore, C4H5N2O.
The molecular formula
molecular mass 194.19 g /mol
= n (number of formula units) = = 2 (approx.)
empririacl formulamass 97.1 g /mol
The molecular formula is therefore, C8H10N4O2
2. What are the empirical and molecular formulas for a compound with
86.88% carbon and 13.12% hydrogen and a molecular weight of about
345?
3. What are the empirical and molecular formulas for a compound with
83.625% carbon and 16.375% hydrogen and a molecular weight of
388.78?
4. Many compounds have the empirical formula of CH2O. Here are the
molecular weights of three:
1) 30.0
2) 60.0
3) 180.0
5. Aspartame is the artificial sweetener sold as NutraSweet and Equal. Its
molecular formula is C14H18N2O5. Calculate mass percentage of each
element in aspartame. And the mass of carbon in a 1.00 g packet of
Equal, assuming it is pure aspartame.
6. What information do we need to determine the molecular formula of a
compound from the empirical formula?
7. Calculate to four significant figures, the percent composition of
Ammonia, NH3
Sulphate ions SO42- in aluminum sulphate Al2(SO4)3
8. Determine the empirical formulas for compounds with the following
percent compositions:
15.8% carbon and 84.2% sulfur
40.0% carbon, 6.7% hydrogen, and 53.3% oxygen
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UNIT 7: HOMOLOGOUS SERIES
Unit objectives
1. Define the term homologous series
2. Determine the characteristics of homologous series
3. Draw the structure of functional groups
4. Identify the types of isomerism
7.1 DEFINITION
A homologous series is a group of organic chemical compounds that have a
similar structure but only differing from each other by the number of CH 2 units
in the main/longest carbon chain.
7.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF A HOMOLOGOUS SERIES

i) All members of the series can be represented by a general formula.
The table below shows the common types of hydrocarbons and their
general formula.
Name of series General chemical
formula
Alkanes CnH2n+2
Alkenes CnH2n
Alkynes CnH2n-2
Halogen substituted alkanes, alkenes and arenes e.g. CnH2n+1Br
bromoalkane
Alcohols (oxygen containing organic compounds) CnH2n+1OH
Aldehydes (oxygen containing organic compounds) CnH2nO
Carboxylic acids (oxygen containing compounds)_ CnH2nO2
Amines (nitrogen containing organic compounds) CnH2n+1NH2
Amides (carboxylic acid derivatives) CnH2n-1ONH2
Nitriles CnH2n-3N
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* n represents the number of carbon atoms in the chain.
* Note that in some cases the minimum value of the number of carbons in the
chain (n) is greater than 1 (n>1). For example, ethene (2 carbons) is the
smallest alkene and ethanenitrile (2 carbons) is the smallest nitrile
ii) All members of a series can be prepared by the same general
methods.
iii) Organic compounds that are part of the same homologous series
generally have similar chemical properties as each other, due to the
presence of the same functional group in the molecules of all
compounds in the series.
Even though members of the same homologous series generally have similar
chemical properties there may still be trends through the group (e.g. as
reactivity and rates of reaction vary with parameters such as molecular
weights).
iv) Physical properties of homologous show a gradual change in the
series with the increase in molecular weight due to the progression of
sizes. E.g. the boiling point of ethane is higher than that of methane
because the molecules of ethane have more Van der Waals forces
(intermolecular forces) with neighbouring molecules than is for
methane.
7.3 STRUCTURE AND BONDING OF FUNCTIONAL GROUPS

As mentioned earlier, functional groups are structural units within organic
compounds that are defined by specific bonding arrangements between specific
atoms. Most of them are composed of the elements from the upper right hand
portion of the periodic table i.e. C, H, N, O, S or Halogens (elements in group
VII of the periodic table).
Importance of functional groups
 They determine the chemical behaviour of a given compound.
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 They also play an important role in organic compound nomenclature
Atoms of a functional group are linked together and the rest of the compound
by covalent bonds. The structural features C=C, CC, C=O, OH, NH2, and CN
are the functional groups of alkenes, alkynes, carbonyl compounds, alcohols,
amines, and nitriles, respectively. The skeletal formulae of select functional
groups are as shown below:
Functional group Brief description Skeletal formula
Carboxylic acid (COOH) The C atom of the carbonyl
group (C=O) bonded to an OH
group.
Ester The carbonyl group joined via
carbon to another oxygen
atom.
Amide The carbonyl group (C=O) is
bonded to an N atom.
Aldehyde contain a The carbonyl group is bonded
carbonyl group (C=O) to at least one H atom
Ketone The two additional bonds of
the C of the carbonyl group
are bonded to C atoms.
Alcohol There is an OH group bonded
to a C in the main C chain.
Alkene Unsaturated hydrocarbon i.e.
there is one or more carbon
carbon double bond along the
main C chain.
Alkyne Unsaturated hydrocarbon i.e.
there is a triple carbon bond
along the main C chain.
Ether Contains an oxygen atom
bonded to two hydrocarbon
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groups.
Nitrile Have a triple bond between C R - CN
and N.
NB: the 'R' group is a symbol commonly used to indicate a C chain without
specifying the exact length, especially when we are interested in something that
is occurring specifically at one location on the molecule (in this case, the
functional groups in organic compounds).
R1 is written to indicate that R and R1 may not necessarily be the same.
7.4 TYPES OF ISOMERISM

Structural isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but
different
structural formula, i.e. their atoms are bonded in different ways. They differ in
physical properties, e.g. boiling points. For example, ethyl alcohol and dimethyl
ether have the same molecular formula of C2H6O by they differ in structural
formula as given below:
Butane ------ Methylpropane

The naming system explained on page 20-21 is known as the IUPAC
(International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) system. The IUPAC names
to distinguish between structural isomers of alcohols, aldehydes, ketones,
carboxylic acids and halogenoalkanes containing up to six carbon atoms are
required.
Types of structural isomerism
1. Chain or skeletal isomerism
Compounds having the same molecular formula but different structures of
their carbon chain are called chain isomers.
2. Functional isomerism
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Compounds having same molecular formula but different position of their
functional groups. E.g. 1-butene, 2-butene.
3. Functional isomerism
Compounds having same molecular formula but different functional groups.
E.g. C3H6O (propanone and propanal).
4. Metamerism
Compounds having same molecular formula but different alkyl groups attached
same multivalent central atom.
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UNIT 8: HYDROCARBON COMPOUNDS
Unit objectives
1. Define the term hydrocarbon and list the types of hydrocarbons
2. Give the nomenclature of various hydrocarbons
3. State the chemical reactions of hydrocarbons

Hydrocarbons: a compound of hydrogen and carbon, such as any of those
which are the chief components of petroleum and natural gas
8.2 TYPES OF HYDROCARBONS

1. Alkanes- with general formula CnH(2n+2) where n is the no. Of carbon
atoms. These contain only single bonds or what u call as sigma bonds. During
their nomenclature suffix “ane" is used. These are called *Saturated*
hydrocarbons.
2. Alkenes- with general formula CnH(2n). These contain atleast 1 double

bond i.e. one sigma and a pi bond. Suffix “ene".
3. Alkynes- with general formula CnH(2n-2). Contain atleast one triple bond
i.e one sigma and 2 pi bonds. Suffix “yne”
1.3 nomenclature of hydrocarbons
The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) has

established rules to systematize the naming of hydrocarbon molecules. A brief
summary of those rules is presented here.
1. Straight-chain hydrocarbon molecules that contain only singly-bonded

carbons are called alkanes. When naming these molecules, the final syllable in
their name is "ane."
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2. Straight-chain hydrocarbon molecules that contain at least one doubly-
bonded carbon are called alkenes. When naming these molecules, the final
syllable in their name is "ene."
3. Straight-chain hydrocarbon molecules that contain at least one triply-

bonded carbon are called alkynes. When naming these molecules, the final
syllable in their name is "yne."
4. Prefixes are attached to the last syllable to indicate the number of

carbons in the hydrocarbon chain. The IUPAC prefixes for the first twelve
carbon chain lengths are:
1 2 3 4 5 6
meth eth prop but pent hex
7 8 9 10 11 12
hept oct non dec undec dodec
5. Alkenes and alkynes with hydrocarbon chain lengths of four or greater

require a numbering scheme to the chain to designate the location of the
multiple bond. The rules regarding this numbering scheme are:
a. The numbering system begins at the end of the molecule nearest the location
of the multiple bond.
b. The number in the name is assigned relative to the carbon in the chain
where the multiple bond begins.
c. A number is included for each multiple bond in the chain. The numbers are
separated by commas.
d. A dash connects the number locations to the hydrocarbon name.
e. Prefixes are added to the "ene" or "yne" final syllable when more than 1
multiple bond is present. The first few prefixes for these are:
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
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di tri tetr pent hex hept oct
6. For ring hydrocarbons (excluding aromatics such as benzene), attach

"cyclo" as the first syllable.
Examples
hexane 1-butene
2-pentyne 1,3-cyclohexadiene
8.4 CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF HYDROCARBONS

Hydrocarbons are compounds that only contain carbon and hydrogen.
Hydrocarbons can be classified further by the type of bonds they contain. If a
hydrocarbon contains only single bonds, it is an alkane. If it contains one or
more carbon-carbon double bonds, it is classified as an alkene. If it contains
one or more triple bonds between two carbon atoms, it is an alkyne. If it
contains a benzene ring, it is considered aromatic. (If it does not contain a
benzene ring, it is aliphatic. Therefore, alkanes, alkenes, and alkynes are all
aliphatic hydrocarbons.) These types of compounds react in different ways, so
it is possible to distinguish between them using experimental tests.
Combustion
All hydrocarbons will burn in the presence of oxygen (in the air). This
reaction is called combustion, and the products of this reaction are water and
carbon dioxide gas. Here is an example of a combustion reaction:
C3H8 (g) + 5 O2 (g)  3 CO2 (g) + 4 H2O (g) + heat
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Combustion reactions also give off a great deal of heat. Because of this,
many hydrocarbons are used as fuels. Some examples are methane (natural
gas), propane, butane, and octane. If there is not an excess of oxygen present
during the combustion, then undesirable products are also formed. Carbon
monoxide (CO) is an example of an undesirable product of incomplete
combustion. This compound is toxic.
Halogenation
All hydrocarbons can be halogenated under certain conditions. Alkanes are

very unreactive, but they can be brominated or chlorinated in the presence of
ultraviolet (UV) light. This is a substitution reaction in which a hydrogen is
removed from the alkane and a halogen (Br or Cl) takes its place. The halogen
atom can substitute at any site on the molecule. Furthermore, the halogenated
products can react further to give di-substituted or tri-substituted products
(and so on). This reaction is therefore not at all selective, and mixtures of many
products will result.
Alkenes and alkynes are much more reactive than alkanes. They will
react readily with Br2 or Cl2, and ultraviolet light is not needed for the
reaction. This reaction is an addition reaction – the halogen atoms will add at
the site of the double bond only. Therefore, this reaction is selective– only one
product will result.
Aromatic compounds are not very reactive. They will not react with Br2 or Cl2
under normal conditions. If the aromatic compound has an alkyl substituent,
however, the alkyl group can be halogenated in the presence of UV light. The
benzene ring will not react under these conditions.
H2 UV light
CH3 + Br2 CH3 + HBr
or heat
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In this experiment, the bromination of several compounds will be
attempted. A solution containing bromine will be added to the compounds
being tested. The bromine has an orange or brown color. If this color
disappears, it means that the bromine is getting used up and therefore the
compound is reacting with the bromine. Thus, disappearance of the orange
color corresponds to a positive reaction.
Oxidation
Another reaction that alkenes undergo is oxidation. When a purple

solution of the oxidizing agent KMnO4 is added to an alkene, the alkene is
oxidized to a diol and the KMnO4 is converted to brown MnO2. Thus, if the
purple color changes to brown in this reaction, it is a positive reaction. The diol
produced has two adjacent alcohol groups.
Alkanes and aromatic compounds do not react with potassium permanganate
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UNIT 9: ALCOHOLS (AIKANOLS)
Unit objectives
By the end of the unit the learner should be able to:
1. Define some terms as used in alcohols
2. Describe methods of alcohol preparations
3. State the chemical properties of alcohol
4. Highlight the uses of alcohol
9.1 DEFINITIONS OF TERMS

Alcohols are compounds in which one or more hydrogen atoms in an alkane
have been replaced by an -OH group. For example:
Alcohols fall into different classes depending on how the -OH group is
positioned on the chain of carbon atoms.
9.2 METHODS OF PREPARATION

There are various methods and ways to prepare alcohols in industries and
laboratories. Let’s learn about these one-by-one below.
1) Hydrolysis of Alkyl Halides

This is a nucleophilic substitution reaction. The method is not a very effective
one. This is because it has as olefins as by-products. ion.
R-X + KOHaq → R-OH
2) Oxymercuration and Demercuration of Alkanes
Alkenes react with mercuric acetate in presence of H2O and tetrahydrofuran
to give alkyl mercury compounds. This is one of the most common types of
methods to prepare alcohols.
3) Preparation of Alcohols from Grignard Reagent
We can obtain the three types of monohydric alcohols (primary, secondary
and tertiary alcohols) by using Grignard reagents and carbonyl compounds.
The addition of RMgX on carbonyl compounds, along with hydrolysis gives us
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alcohols. The Grignard reagent is basically an organometallic compound. Let
us look at this reaction in greater detail as it is a very important reaction.
When we allow a solution of an alkyl halide in dry ethyl ether, (C2H5)O to
stand overturnings of metallic magnesium, we witness a vigorous reaction. We
can see that the solution turns cloud and begins to boil. The magnesium
metal gradually disappears. The resulting solution is the Grignard reagent.
CH3I + Mg CH3MgI
H3CH2Br + Mg CH3CH2MgBr
Ethyl bromide Ethylmagnesium bromide
The Grignard reagent has the general formula R MgX, and the general name
alkyl magnesium halide.
4) Reduction of Carbonyl Compounds
We can also get alcohols by the reduction of aldehydes and ketones. We can
reduce aldehydes to primary alcohols and ketones to secondary alcohols. This
process can take place by the catalytic hydrogenation or by the use of
chemical reducing agents like lithium aluminium hydride, LiAlH4.
Such reduction techniques find an important place in the preparation of
certain alcohols that are less available than the corresponding carbonyl
compounds. What we must note here is that Sodium borohydride, NaBH4,
does not reduce carbon-carbon double bonds, not even those conjugated with
carbonyl groups.
5) Reduction of Acids to Alcohols
Lithium aluminium hydride, LiAlH4, is one of the few reagents that can
reduce an acid to an alcohol.
4RCOOH + 3LiAlH4 → 4RCH2OH 1oalcohol
Because of the excellent yields it gives, LiAlH4 is a common ingredient in the
laboratory for the reduction of not only acids but many other classes of
compounds.
6) Other Methods of Preparation of Alcohols
• By the Action of Nitrous Acid on Primary Amines
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R-NH2 + HNO2 → R-OH + N2 + H2O
However, under similar conditions, CH3NH2 gives CH3-O-N=O or CH3OCH3
CH3NH2 + 2HNO2 → CH3-O-N=O + 2H2O + N2
OR 2CH3NH2 + 2HNO2 → CH3OCH3 + 2N2 + 3H2O
• By Fermentation
Fermentation is the slow decomposition of complex organic compounds into
simpler organic compounds by the activity of enzymes. Enzymes are complex,
nitrogenous (proteins), non-living macromolecules of high molecular weight.
We usually get these enzymes from living organisms.
This process is usually followed by the evolution of gases like CO2 & CH4.
They release a lot of energy and are exothermic in nature. The alcoholic
fermentation involves the conversion of sugar into ethyl alcohol by yeast.
9.3 CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF ALCOHOLS

Alcohols are versatile organic compounds since they undergo a wide variety of
transformations – the majority of which are either oxidation or reduction type
reactions.
Normally: Oxidation is a loss of electrons; Reduction is a gain of electrons.
But in organic terms:
Oxidation: loss of H2; addition of O or O2; addition of X2 (halogens).
Reduction: addition of H2 or H-; loss of O or O2; loss of X2.
(Neither an oxidation nor reduction: Addition or loss of H+, H2O, HX).
9.4 USES OF ALCOHOLS

1. Used as an ingredient in alcoholic beverages e.g. wine and beer
2. Used to produce methylated spirit (meth)
Methylated spirit is ethanol mixed with small amounts of methanol, which is
poisonous, making it unfit for consumption. Methylated spirit is combustible
so it can be used in lamps and stoves, especially those made for camping.
Methylated spirit is used to remove ink from non-porous surfaces. E.g.
removing permanent ink from various kinds of surfaces, such as metals and
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plastics. Methylated spirit is used as a component of household cleaning
products, usually glass cleaners.
3. Used as a fuel
Ethanol burns cleanly to form carbon dioxide and water. Using ethanol as fuel
does not contribute much to pollution. Ethanol is usually mixed with gasoline
to produce 'gasohol", which is about 10-20% ethanol. Using ethanol as a fuel
reduces our reliance on natural fossil fuels such as petrol.
4. Used as a solvent
Ethanol is commonly used as an organic solvent to dissolve organic
compounds which are insoluble in water. E.g. used in cosmetics such as
perfumes; used in medicines such as disinfectants; used in toiletries such as
after-shave lotions. Advantages of ethanol as a solvent is that it is volatile,
colourless and has a relatively high boiling point of 78°C. It is also miscible in
both water and other organic solvents.
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UNIT 10: CARBONYL COMPOUNDS
Unit objectives
1. Identify structures of carbonyl compounds and their reactions
2. State the methods of preparing carbonyl compounds
10.1 DEFINITION OF CARBONYL

Carbonyl compounds are molecules containing the carbonyl group, C=O. They
include the carboxylic acids, aldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acid derivatives
(e.g. esters, amides). The simplest carbonyl compounds are aldehydes and
ketones. A ketone has two alkyl (aryl) groups bonded to the carbonyl carbon
whereas an aldehyde has one alkyl (aryl) group and one hydrogen atom bonded
to the carbonyl carbon.
NB: An alkyl group is derived from an alkane i.e. it is an alkane with a

hydrogen atom missing from its chain. The smallest alkyl group is methyl (CH 3)
group derived from methane (CH4). An aryl group is derived from benzene
which contains an aromatic ring. A hydrogen atom is missing from the
compound allowing it to get attached to a carbon chain. For the purposes of
this course, we shall ignore the aryl group.
Ketones are named by replacing the –e ending of the alkyl name with –one
(alkane to alkanone).
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Aldehydes has to be at the end of a chain, and while naming, it is carbon
number 1. They are named by replacing –e with –al (alkane to alkanal).
E.g.
The wide spread usage of carbonyl compounds means many common names
are entrenched in their everyday use. E.g. acetone for propanone, formaldehyde
for methanal.
Three of the four bases which comprise DNA i.e. guanine, thymine and cytosine
contain carbonyl groups.
Properties of aldehydes and ketones
Physical properties
 They are polar molecules because the C=O bond has a dipole moment
(there is a separation of charge).
 They have lower boiling points than alcohols of similar molecular weights
but higher than those of alkenes of similar molecular weight.
 They have considerable solubility in water.
Chemical properties
The reactions of the carbonyl group fall into three main categories
1. Reactions with acids
2. Addition reactions
3. Oxidation reactions
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Preparation of aldehydes and ketones
Ketones and aldehydes can be prepared through many reactions. Below are
examples of some of the ways to prepare aldehydes and ketones.
Hydration of alkynes
This can be achieved with Markonikov (acid and mercury (II) catalyzed reaction)
From alcohols
Secondary alcohols are readily oxidized to ketones by KMnO 4. Aldehydes are
made from the oxidation of primary alcohols.
In Biochemistry you’ll learn that the conversion of ethanol to acetaldehyde is
the 1st step in the liver’s processing of ingested alcohol. Aldehydes are
chemically reactive. E.g. acetaldehyde can react with proteins of the body and
is fairly toxic accounting for some of the side effects of excessive drinking.
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UNIT 11: CARBOXYLIC ACIDS AND THEIR
DERIVATIVES
Unit objectives
1. Name carboxylic acids and derivatives
2. State the methods of preparing carboxylic acids and their chemical
reactions
11.1 INTRODUCTION
The general molecular formula of this series can be represented as CnH2nO2.
The carboxylic acids contain both the carbonyl group (C=O) and hydroxyl group
(-OH). In this section we shall try to understand the ways that carboxylic acids,
which possess the -COOH functional group, are similar to and different from
alcohols, which have the −OH group, and aldehydes and ketones, which
have C=O bonds. Many carboxylic acids have trivial names and are often
referred to as ‘fatty acids’ which refers to the naturally occurring straight chain
saturated and unsaturated aliphatic acids. E.g. palmitic acid, stearic acid, oleic
and linoleic acids.
The simplest carboxylic acids are methanoic/formic acid (HCO2H) and
ethanoic/acetic (CH3CO2H) acid.
Physical properties of carboxylic acids
 They have substantially higher melting and boiling points relative to
alcohols, aldehydes or ketones.
 They are soluble in water
11.2 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF CARBOXYLIC ACIDS

i) Acidic behaviour
Ethanoic acid is a weak acid that is slightly ionized in dilute solution. Presence
of hydrogen ions (H+) gives the solution acidic behavior and therefore:
It turns blue litmus red
Forms a salt when reacted with a base.
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It liberates carbon dioxide to form carbonate.
ii) Reaction with chlorine
In the presence of light, ethanoic acid reacts with Cl2 to form
monochloroethanoic acid and hydrogen chloride gas.
Sunlight
Cl2 (g) + CH3COOH (l)  CH2ClCOOH (l) + HCL (g)
iii) Esterification
When carboxylic acids react with alcohols in the presence of an acid, an ester
is formed. This process is referred to as esterification. Water is produced in the
reaction. The reaction can be generally represented as below.
11.3 PREPARATION OF CARBOXYLIC ACIDS

They can be prepared by application of several methods.
E.g. By oxidation of aldehydes or alcohols
Alcohol  aldehyde  carboxylic acid

A large number of oxidizing agents are used for these conversions e.g.
potassium permanganate, KMnO4 and potassium dichromate, K2Cr2O7.
Carboxylic acid derivatives
The combination of other functional groups with carbonyl group leads to the
formation of
carboxylic acid derivatives. They include acyl chlorides, anhydrides, esters and
acid amides.
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UNIT 12: ALKYL HALIDES
Unit objectives
1. state the nomenclature of the halides
2. identify the methods of preparing alkyl halides and their chemical
reactions
12.1 NOMENCLATURE OF ALKYL HALIDES

Also known as halogenalkanes. Alkyl halides are derived from alkanes by
exchanging hydrogen for halogen (fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine).
Depending on the degree of substitution at the carbon atom carrying the
halogen, alkyl halides are classified into primary, secondary and tertiary alkyl
halides. In primary alkyl halides, the carbon which carries the halogen is only
attached to one other alkyl group.
X represents the halogen (F,Cl,Br or I). The name of the halogen is followed by
the name of the alkane, for example, iodomethane and chloromethane. If an
alkyl halide contains more than one halogen, the halogen names are noted in
alphabetical order, such as 1-chloro-2-iodobutane.
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2-iodopropane 2-bromobutane 2-bromo-2-methylpropane
In the nomenclature of unsaturated alkyl halides, unsaturated bonds have a
higher priority than halogen substituents. This requires special attention when
numbering the carbon chain.
e.g.
Properties of alkyl halides
Physical properties
1. The simple alkyl halides are gases at room temperature except
iodomethane.
2. They are slightly soluble in water.
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UNIT 13: SOLUTIONS AND CONCETRATIONS
Unit objectives
1. Define terms as used in solutions and concentrations

2. Outline on the steps of preparing various solutions and their
concentrations

Solute – this is a substance that dissolves in a solvent
Solvent – a substance which dissolves another to form a solution. For
example, in a sugar and water solution, water is the solvent; sugar is the
solute.
Solution - A mixture of two or more pure substances. In a solution one pure
substance is dissolved in another pure substance homogenously. For example,
in a sugar and water solution, the solution has the same concentration
throughout, i.e. It is homogenous.
Mole – it is a unit of mass (like a "dozen" to a baker) used by chemists. This
term refers to a large number of elementary particles (atoms, molecules, ions,
electrons, etc) of any substance. 1 mole is 6.02 x 1023 molecules of that
substance. (Avogadro's number).M
13.2 PREPARATION OF SOLUTIONS

A solution is a homogenous mixture of two or more substances i.e. components
are uniformly mixed. When a solute is dissolved in a solvent, a solution is
formed. The solute is the substance present in a smaller amount, and the
solvent is the substance present in a larger amount. A solution may be gaseous
(air), solid (alloy) or liquid (seawater).
For the purposes of this course, we shall discuss aqueous solutions in which
the solute initially is a liquid or a solid and the solvent is water. All solutes that
dissolve in water fit into two categories: electrolytes and nonelectrolytes.
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Electrolytes is a substance that when dissolved in water, results in a solution
that can conduct electricity. Whereas nonelectrolyte does not conduct
electricity when dissolved in water. E.g. NaCl is an electrolyte since it conducts
electricity. Electrodes connected to a light bulb are immersed in in a beaker of
the solution is a method used to distinguish between electrolytes and
nonelectrolytes. The brightness of the light bulb helps distinguish between
strong and weak electrolytes. Strong electrolytes include sodium chloride,
potassium iodide, and calcium nitrate. The human body contains many strong
and weak electrolytes. Acids and bases are also electrolytes e.g. HCl and HNO 3
are strong electrolytes. These acids are said to ionize completely in water i.e.
forms ions of the compound.
Although water is electronically neutral, it has a positive region (hydrogen
atoms) and a negative region (oxygen atoms) therefore making it an effective
solvent for ionic compounds.
Types of Solutes
 Soluble/Hydrophilic molecules – molecules that contain polar groups
that can form hydrogen bond with water are said to be soluble in water.
 Insoluble/Hydrophobic molecules - non-polar molecules that do not
dissolve in water e.g. oils
 Slightly soluble/Amphipathic molecules - are molecules that contain
both hydrophilic and hydrophobic parts.
Types of solutions
Solutions can be categorized depending on:
i) Original states of the solution components i.e. gas, liquid or solid.
Gas + gas = gas (air)
Gas + liquid = liquid (soda water (CO2 in water))
Gas + solid = solid (H2 gas in palladium)
Liquid + liquid = liquid (ethanol in water)
Solid + liquid = liquid (NaCl in water)
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Solid + solid = solid (Brass (Zn/Cu)). But for the purposes of this course, we
shall only concentrate on solutions that involve at least one liquid.
ii) Capacity to dissolve a solute
In this category, there are three types i.e.
a) Unsaturated – this contains less solute than it has the capacity to
dissolve.
b) Saturated – contains the maximum amount of a solute that will dissolve
in a given solvent at a specific temperature.
c) Super-saturated – it contains more solute than is present in a saturated
solution. It not stable and in time will come out of a supersaturated
solution as crystals.
NB: Crystallization is the process in which dissolved solute comes out of a
solution and forms crystals.
Concentration of solutions
This refers to the amount of solute present in a given amount of solvent, or a
amount of solute
given amount of solution. It can be expressed as, Concentration= .
amount of solution
In most cases, you will hear a solution referred to as dilute or concentrated.
E.g. concentrated and dilute orange juice. A dilute solution is one that contains
a relatively small amount of the solute in a given volume of solvent. A
concentrated solution on the other hand contains a relatively large amount of
the solute in the same volume of solvent.
In the laboratory and also in everyday use, the concentration of various
solutions can be expressed/represented in many different ways. The most
common concentration units are as below:
1. Mass percent/parts per hundred/percent by mass (%)
(Mass of solute/mass of solution) X 100
2. Molarity - This refers to the number of moles of solute per liter of solution. It
is expressed as M or molar. The volume of solution in calculating molarity
must always be in liters.
To calculate molarity, the following equation is used
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moles of solute
Molarity ( M )=
liters of solution
Moles of solute/liter of solution = mol./L or M.
Examples
a) If 5 liters of water is added to two moles of glucose to make a solution,
the concentration (molarity) is said to be 0.4 M
mol 2
M= , x= , so, x=0.4 M or 0.4 molar
L 5
b) What is the molarity of 600ml of potassium iodide solution that contains
5.50 moles of the solute?
mol 5.5
M= , x= , so, x= 9.16 M or 9.16 molar
L 0.6
c) Laundry bleach used in many households is a dilute aqueous solution of
sodium hypochlorite (NaClO). How many moles of solute are present in
1.5 L of 0.70M NaClO?
mol x
M= , 0.7= , so, x=1.05 mol NaClO
L 1.5
Additional concentration units/expressions are as shown in the table below:
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13.3 COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES OF SOLUTIONS
A colligative property is a property of a solution that depends upon the number
of solute particles and not upon their identity (or properties of solutions that
depend on the number of the solute particles, and not on the
nature/identity/type of solute particles).
The four important colligative properties of solutions are as below. There is a
direct relationship between the concentration of a solution (number of solute
particles) and the effect recorded in regard to the colligative properties.
i) Vapor-pressure lowering - The vapor pressure of a solvent in a solution is
always lower than the vapor pressure of the pure solvent.
ii) Boiling-point elevation – this refers to the difference between the boiling
point of a solution and the boiling point of the pure solvent.
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iii) Freezing-point depression – this refers to the difference in temperature
between the freezing point of a solution and the freezing point of the pure
solvent.
iv) Osmotic pressure – osmosis is the process by which solvent molecules
move through membrane from more solvent (lower concentration) into
side with less solvent (higher concentration).
13.4 SOLUBILITY
It is referred to as the maximum amount of solute that will dissolve in a given
quantity of solvent at a specific temperature and pressure. As mentioned
earlier, substances may be classified as either soluble, insoluble or slightly
soluble. Solubility is used to predict whether a precipitate will form when one
compound is added to a solution. Below is a table showing some solubility
rules commonly applied in chemistry.
Soluble compounds Insoluble exceptions
Compounds containing alkali metal
ions (Li+, Na+, K+, Rb+, Cs+) and
ammonium ion (NH4+)
Nitrates (NO3-), acetates (CH3COO-),
bicarbonates (HCO3-), chlorates (ClO3-)
Halides of Ag+, Hg2+, Pb2+
and perchlorates (ClO4-)
Sulfates of Ag+, Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+ , Hg2+,
Halides (Cl-, Br-, I-)
Pb2+
Sulfates (SO )4
-
Insoluble compounds Soluble exceptions

Carbonates (CO32-) Compounds containing alkali metal
Phosphates (PO42-) ions and the ammonium ion e.g. NaOH
Chromates (CrO4-) Compounds containing alkali metal
Sulfides (S2-) ions and the Ba2+ ion.
Hydroxides (OH-)
Factors affecting solubility
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i) Nature of solute and solvent/molecular structure
Polar and ionic solutes are soluble in polar solvents while nonpolar solutes are
soluble in nonpolar solvents. “Like dissolves like”.
ii) Temperature
E.g. In ionic solids, solubility increases as temperature increases and the
solubility of gases decreases as temperature increases e.g. warm soda goes flat.
iii) Pressure
For solids/liquids, change in temperature does not change solubility. In gases
however, increase in pressure leads to increase in solubility. (Henry’s Law).
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UNIT 14: GASES
Unit objectives
1. Define gas laws

2. State the application of Graham’s law of diffusion to nutrition and
dietetics

1 atm – this is the standard atmospheric pressure which is equal to 760mmHg
or 760 torr.
Kelvin
Absolute zero – this is the lowest attainable temperature i.e. -273 0C on the
Celsius scale or 0 K on the Kelvin temperature scale.
Ideal gas is defined in which interactions between molecules are nonexistent
and volume occupied by molecules is zero.
Elements that exist as gases include 5 of the diatomic molecules i.e. H 2, N2, O2,
F2, and Cl2, the oxygen allotrope ozone (O3) and the group 8A monoatomic gases
(collectively referred to as noble gases) i.e. He (Helium), Ne (Neon), Ar (Argon),
Kr (Krypton), Xe (Xenon) and Rn (Radon).
Several compounds also exist as gases in room temperature e.g. methane,
carbon IV oxide, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, ammonia, nitrogen dioxide,
hydrogen sulfide etc.
Physical properties of gases
1. Gases are always miscible
2. Gases assume the volume and shape of the containers
3. Gases are the most compressible of the states of matter
4. Gases will mix evenly and completely when confined to the same
container
5. Gases have much lower densities than liquids and solids
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Pressure of a Gas
Gases exert pressure on any surface with which they come in contact since gas
molecules are constantly in motion.
A classic demonstration of atmospheric pressure: how are we able to drink a
liquid through a straw?
a drinking straw works by decreasing the air pressure inside the straw (when
we such thro it), the atmospheric pressure acting on the surface of the liquid
which is now greater than that in the straw forces the liquid to rise up in the
straw.
The diagram illustrates this concept.
Pressure can be defined as force per unit area. F/A. It is one of the most
readily measureable properties of a gas.
Force is rate of change of momentum: F=ma=d(mv)/dt.
The SI unit of pressure is the pascal (Pa). 1 Pa = 1 N/m2 where N (Newton) is
the S.I. unit of force. E.g. Atmospheric
pressure is the pressure exerted by the
earth’s atmosphere and is about 100,000
Pa which is measured using a barometer.
14.2 THE GAS LAWS

All gases exhibit similar physical properties even if their chemical properties
differ widely. These properties can be summarized in a few simple laws.
The variables set are pressure (P), volume (V), temperature (T in Kelvin) and
number of molecules (n in moles) i.e. keep one (or two) of the variables
constant and vary the others.
i) Boyle’s law
This investigates the pressure and volume relationship of a gas sample. The
volume of a fixed amount of an ideal gas varies inversely with pressure at a
constant temperature. A bicycle pump is a good example of Boyle’s law. As the
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volume of the air trapped in the pump is reduced, its pressure goes up, and air
is forced into the tire.
1
This law can be expressed as a mathematical expression as P . The symbol
V
 means proportional to. We can change the symbol to an equals sign and write
1
P=k1 × . Where k1 is the proportionality constant. On rearranging the
V
equation, we can now express Boyle’s law as PV=k1.
ii) Charles’ law

This investigates the temperature and volume relationship of a gas sample. At
constant pressure, the volume of a gas sample expands when heated and
contracts when cooled. Therefore, Charles’ law states that, the volume of a
fixed amount of gas maintained at a constant pressure is directly proportional
to the absolute temperature of the gas. An ideal application for this gas law is
the hot air balloon.
This law can be expressed as a mathematical expression as VT. The symbol 
means proportional to. We can change the symbol to an equals sign and write
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V=k2 ×T. Where k2 is the proportionality constant. On rearranging the equation,
V
we can now express Charles’ law as =k2.
T
iii) Avogadro’s law

This investigates the volume and amount relationship of a gas sample. It states
that, at constant pressure and temperature, the volume of a gas is directly
proportional to the number of moles of the gas present.
This law can be expressed as a mathematical expression as Vn. The symbol 
means proportional to. We can change the symbol to an equals sign and write
V=k3 ×n. Where k3 is the proportionality constant. On rearranging the equation,
V
we can now express Avogadro’s law as =k .
n 3
iv) Ideal gas law
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An ideal gas is a hypothetical gas whose pressure-volume-temperature
behavior can be completely accounted for the ideal gas equation. An ideal gas
obeys all of the gas laws under all conditions, dose not condense into a liquid
when cooled. This gas law brings together the gas properties using the gas laws
we have discussed above.
1
Boyle’s law: P
V
Charles’ law: VT
Avogadro’s law: Vn
These are combined to form a single main equation expressing the behavior of
gases as
nT nT
V . We can then change the  symbol to an equals sign and write V=R .on
P P
rearranging the equation, it is then expressed as PV=nRT.
Application: How much gas is required to fill a basketball or a light bulb?
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UNIT 15: KINETIC THEORY OF GASES
Unit objectives
1. State the ideal gas laws and their application
2. Explain the application of kinetic theory and temperature in food
preparation
15.1 ASSUMPTIONS OF KINETIC THEORY OF GASES

Kinetic energy is the type of energy expended by a moving object, or energy of
motion. Kinetic theory of gases makes several central assumptions. They are
a. A gas is composed of molecules that are separated from each other by
distances far greater than their own dimensions.
b. B. gas molecules are in constant motion in random directions and they
frequently collide with one another.
c. Gas molecules exert neither attractive nor repulsive forces on one
another.
d. The average kinetic energy of molecules is proportional to the
temperature of the gas in kelvin.
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UNIT 16: SOLUBILITY
Unit objectives
1. State the factors affecting solubility of substances
2. Draw and explain on solubility curves
3. Determine the precipitation of some salts
4. Identify eutectic mixtures
5. Explain on fractional distillation of known substances
The solubility of a solute is: the maximum amount of solute that can dissolve
in a certain amount of solvent or solution at a certain temperature.
16.1 FACTORS AFFECTING SOLUBILITY

Nature of the solute and solvent – The amount of solute that dissolves depends
on what type of solute it is. While only 1 gram of lead (II) chloride can be
dissolved in 100 grams of water at room temperature, 200 grams of zinc
chloride can be dissolved. This means that a greater amount of zinc chloride
can be dissolved in the same amount of water than lead II chloride.
Temperature -- Generally, an increase in the temperature of the solution
increases the solubility of a solid solute. For example, a greater amount of
sugar will dissolve in warm water than in cold water. A few solid solutes,
however, are less soluble in warmer solutions. For all gases, solubility
decreases as the temperature of the solution rises. An example of this is Soda.
The solubility of the carbon dioxide gas decreases when a soda is warm,
making the soda flat.
Pressure -- For solid and liquid solutes, changes in pressure have practically
no effect on solubility. For gaseous solutes, an increase in pressure increases
solubility and a decrease in pressure decreases solubility. Example: When the
cap on a bottle of soda pop is removed, pressure is released, and the gaseous
solute bubbles out of solution. This escape of a gas from solution is called
effervescence.
16.2 SOLUBILITY CURVES
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A solubility curve is a data based graph comparing the amount of solute that
will dissolve in a given amount of solvent at various temperatures. The most
typical solubility curves are graphed based solid and gaseous solutes dissolved
in 100 grams of water.
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16.3 PRECIPITATION OF SALTS
A mixture of metal ions in a solution can be separated by precipitation with
anions such as Cl−Cl−, Br−Br−, SO2−4SO42−, CO2−3CO32−, S2−S2−,
Cr2O2−4Cr2O42−, PO2−4PO42−, OH−OH− etc. When a metal ion or a group of
metal ions form insoluble salts with a particular anion, they can be separated
from others by precipitation. We can also separate the anions by precipitating
them with appropriate metal ions. There are no definite dividing lines between
insoluble salts, sparingly soluble, and soluble salts, but concentrations of their
saturated solutions are small, medium, and large. Solubility products are
usually listed for insoluble and sparingly soluble salts, but they are not given
for soluble salts. Solubility products for soluble salts are very large.
What type of salts are usually soluble, sparingly soluble and insoluble? The
following are some general guidelines, but these are not precise laws.
• All nitrates are soluble. The singly charged large NO−3NO3− ions form
salts with high solubilities. So do ClO−4ClO4−, ClO−3ClO3−, NO−2NO2−,
HCOO−HCOO−, and CH3COO−CH3COO−.
• All chlorides, bromides, and iodides are soluble except those of Ag+Ag+,
Hg2+2Hg22+, and Pb2+Pb2+. CaF2CaF2, BaF2BaF2, and PbF2PbF2 are also
insoluble.
• All sulfates are soluble, except those of Ba2+Ba2+, Sr2+Sr2+, and
Pb2+Pb2+. The doubly charged sulfates are usually less soluble than halides
and nitrates.
• Most singly charge cations K+K+, Na+Na+, NH+4NH4+ form soluble salts.
However, K3Co(NO2)6K3Co(NO2)6 and (NH4)3Co(NO2)6(NH4)3Co(NO2)6 are
insoluble
16.4 EUTECTIC MIXTURES

An eutectic is a melting composition of minimum two or more components,
each of which melts and freezes congruently. During the crystallization phase,
a mixture of the components is formed, hence acting as a single component.
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The components freeze to an intimate mixture of crystals and melt
simultaneously without separation. Eutectics can be mixtures of organic
and/or inorganic compounds. Hence, eutectics can be made as either organic–
organic, inorganic–inorganic or organic–inorganic mixtures. This gives room for
a wide variety of combinations that can be tailored for specific applications.
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16.5 FRACTIONAL CRYSTALLIZATION
A process by which a chemical compound is separated into components by
crystallization. In fractional crystallization the compound is mixed with a
solvent, heated, and then gradually cooled so that, as each of its constituent
components crystallizes, it can be removed in its pure form from the solution.
16.6 DISTRIBUTION COEFFICIENTS

Distribution coefficient is an empirically dimensionless property that describes
how a chemical substance distributes itself between two phases. The media
can be gases such as air, liquids such as water or olive oil, or complex
mixtures such as blood or other tissues
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UNIT 17: SOLUTIONS
Unit objectives
By the end of the unit the learner should be able to:
1. List the types of solutions
2. Describe the methods of expressing the composition of mixtures
3. Explain the colligate properties of solutions
4. Identify the ideal and non ideal solutions
5. State the properties of different solutions
A solution is defined a homogenous mixture which mainly comprises of two
components namely solute and solvent. For example, salt and sugar is a good
illustration of a solution. A solution can be categorized into several
components.
17.1 TYPES OF SOLUTIONS

Depending upon the dissolution of the solute in the solvent, solutions can be
categorized into supersaturated, unsaturated and saturated solutions.
• A supersaturated solution comprises of a large amount of solute at a
temperature wherein it will be reduced as a result the extra solute will
crystallize quickly.
• An unsaturated solution is a solution in which solvent is capable of
dissolving any more solute at given temperature.
• A saturated solution can be defined as a solution in which solvent is not
capable of dissolving any more solute at given temperature.
Homogenous and Heterogenous Solutions
Homogeneous solutions are solutions with uniform composition and properties
throughout the solution. For example a cup of coffee, perfume, cough syrup, a
solution of salt or sugar in water etc.
Heterogeneous solutions are solutions with non-uniform composition and
properties throughout the solution. A solution of oil and water, water and chalk
powder and solution of water and sand
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17.2 METHODS OF EXPRESSING COMPOSITION OF MIXTURES
17.3 COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES

A colligative property is a property of a solution that depends upon the number
of solute particles and not upon their identity (or properties of solutions that
depend on the number of the solute particles, and not on the
nature/identity/type of solute particles).
The four important colligative properties of solutions are as below. There is a
direct relationship between the concentration of a solution (number of solute
particles) and the effect recorded in regard to the colligative properties.
i) Vapor-pressure lowering - The vapor pressure of a solvent in a solution is
always lower than the vapor pressure of the pure solvent.
ii) Boiling-point elevation – this refers to the difference between the boiling
point of a solution and the boiling point of the pure solvent.
iii) Freezing-point depression – this refers to the difference in temperature
between the freezing point of a solution and the freezing point of the pure
solvent.
iv) Osmotic pressure – osmosis is the process by which solvent molecules
move through membrane from more solvent (lower concentration) into
side with less solvent (higher concentration).
17.4 IDEAL AND NON-IDEAL SOLUTIONS

Ideal Solutions: The solutions which obey Raoult’s Law at every range of
concentration and at all temperatures are Ideal Solutions. We can obtain ideal
solutions by mixing two ideal components that are, solute and a solvent having
similar molecular size and structure.
Non-ideal solutions: The solutions which don’t obey Raoult’s law at every range
of concentration and at all temperatures are Non-Ideal Solutions. Non-ideal
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solutions deviate from ideal solutions and are also known as Non-Ideal
Solutions.
CHARACTERISTICS OF NON-IDEAL SOLUTIONS

• Non-ideal solutions showing positive deviation from Raoult’s Law
• Non-ideal solutions showing negative deviation from Raoult’s Law
17.5 ELECTRIC PROPERTIES OF SOLUTIONS
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UNIT 18: THERMOCHEMISTRY
Unit objectives
1. State the enthalpy changes in chemical reactions
2. State the laws of energy conservation
3. Discuss the types of heat in reactions
4. List the factors affecting rates of chemical reactions

Thermodynamics is the study of heat, and how heat can be interconverted
into other energy forms.
In thermodynamics the system is a specific part of the universe that is being
studied, often the system is a chemical reaction. The surroundings are all
parts of the universe that are not the system, typically everything outside the
test tube.
An open system can exchange both energy and matter with its surroundings.
An active volcano is an example of an open system.
A closed system can exchange energy but not matter. A sealed greenhouse is a
closed system.
An isolated system can exchange neither energy nor matter. A sealed thermos
bottle is an isolated system.
Thermochemistry is a branch of thermodynamics and is the study of how
energy in the form of heat is involved in chemical change.
Heat is defined as the energy that flows into or out of a reaction because of a
difference in temperature between the thermodynamic system and its
surroundings. Or heat is the transfer of thermal energy between two bodies
that are at different temperatures.
The heat content of a body will depend on its temperature, its mass, and the
material it is made of. Temperature is NOT the same as heat. Temperature
measures the degree of hotness or coldness i.e. how hot or how cold.
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Energy can simply be defined as ability to do work. E.g. light energy from
sunlight makes plants to grow. Energy in food allows us to perform normal
bodily functions. It is measured in different units e.g. kilowatts in measuring
electrical energy, calories in food. In measuring energy associated with most
chemical processes, energy is expressed in terms of joules. The food energy
unit, Calorie, is equal to 1 kcal. One calorie is the energy needed to raise the
temperature of one gram of pure water by one degree Celsius (10C). In addition,
4.18 joules = 1 calorie.
18.2 FORMS OF ENERGY

Energy takes many forms such as mechanical, thermal, radiant, chemical,
electrical, or gravitational. These are categorized into two broad classes:
kinetic energy, energy associated with motion, and potential energy, energy
associated with position.
Potential energy
It is energy stored up and is ready to be used/converted in future. E.g. fossil
fuels have potential energy which can be converted to other forms of energy.
Kinetic energy
This is energy in motion. The more kinetic energy a body has, the faster it
moves. Objects at rest have no kinetic energy.
Energy (heat) flows between the reaction and surroundings to establish
temperature equality or thermal equilibrium. Heat flows from a region of higher
temperature to one of lower temperature. WRITTEN ASSESSMENT
INSTRUCTIONS TO CANDIDATE
1. You have THREE (3) Hours to attempt all the questions.
2. Marks for each question are indicated in the brackets ().
3. The paper consists of THREE sections: A, B and C.
4. Do not write on the question paper.
5. You are provided with a separate answer booklet.
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Enthalpy
Enthalpy refers to a state function used to describe the heat changes that
occur in a reaction under constant pressure. In chemical reactions, heat can
either be absorbed or released. This flow of heat is referred to as enthalpy
change.
Reactions that release heat are termed as exothermic, they have negative
values of ΔH e.g. freezing or condensation.
Reactions that absorb heat are termed as endothermic, they have positive
values of ΔH e.g. melting or vaporization.
The heat notation in a thermochemical equation
The symbol ΔH is used to denote heat changes. A thermochemical equation is a
chemical equation with the ΔH for the reaction included.
E.g.
NH4NO3 (s) NH4 + (aq) + NO3 - (aq) ΔH = +28.1 kJ (endothermic reaction)
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Measuring temperature
As earlier mentioned, temperature refers to the degree of hotness or coldness of
an object and is measured by a thermometer. Temperature is proportional to
the average kinetic energy per particle in a substance. E.g. for gases how fast
the gas particles are bouncing to and fro or for liquids how fast particles slide
and jiggle past one another and for solids, how fast particles move as they
vibrate and jiggle in place
The higher the temperature of a substance, the faster the motion of its
molecules.
Temperature is measured using a variety of temperature scales. The most
commonly used are described in the next two sections.
1. The Celsius Scale (°C)
This scale puts the freezing point of water at 0o C and the boiling point of water
at 100o C. The temperatures in between are divided up into 100 units (degrees).
The disadvantages of this scale are:
There may be temperatures below 0o C.
The pressures and volumes of gases do not change in proportion to Celsius
temperature.
2. The Kelvin Scale (K)

This scale has absolute zero as the zero point on its scale. The size of the
degree is the same as a Celsius degree.
Advantages:
There are no negative temperatures
Pressures and volumes of gases will change in proportion to Kelvin
temperature.
Absolute zero is 273 degrees below 0o C.
To convert from Celsius degrees to Kelvin degrees: add 273.
To convert from Kelvin degrees to Celsius degrees: subtract 273.
For example:
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K 0 273 373
C
0
-273 0 100
3. Fahrenheit scale
This scale sets the freezing point of water at 32 0F to 2120F for boiling point of
water.
18.3 TYPES OF THERMOMETERS USED IN MEASURING TEMPERATURE

Thermometers measure temperature by expansion or contraction of a liquid
(mercury or colored alcohol). There are many different types of thermometer
used for measuring temperature e.g. mercury, alcohol, infra-red, bi-metallic
strip, thermocouple, electrical resistance, brightness thermometer etc.
18.4 HEAT TRANSFER

Heat can transfer (move) in 3 ways i.e. conduction, convection and radiation.
Conduction
It is most obvious in solids. Conduction occurs when heat energy travels
through a body, passing from particle to particle as they vibrate against each
other. When a solid heats up, its particles gain kinetic energy and increase the
energy with which they vibrate. A good conductor must have particles which
are close enough together to collide with sufficient force for energy to be
transferred. Metals are all good conductors of heat especially copper,
aluminium and silver, because they have “free” (metallic bonding) electrons
which are easily able to transfer heat energy. All liquids (except mercury) and
gases are very poor conductors of heat. Some materials are poor conductors of
heat are referred to as insulators e.g. wood, plastics
Convection
It is the transfer of heat by the movement of the heated particles themselves.
This can only take place in liquids and gases because in solids the particles are
not able to move from their fixed positions. When a liquid or gas is heated, it
expands and becomes less dense. The lighter liquid or gas rises allowing a flow
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of cooler material to take its place. This in turn becomes heated and so a
current is set up. Heat will continue to be transferred through the available
space in this way until it is evenly distributed.
Radiation
It is the way we receive heat energy from the sun. It does not require a medium
for its transmission (i.e. it can travel through empty space) and is in the form of
electromagnetic energy waves which travel in the same way as light or radio
waves.
When these energy waves fall on a body, the energy may be: absorbed,
transmitted or reflected.
When radiant energy is absorbed the body will rise in temperature. A rack of
clothes left in front of a radiant heater will continue to absorb heat until it
reaches ignition temperature. Black and dull surfaces absorb (and radiate) heat
much more efficiently than white shiny surface.
Radiant energy is transmitted through clear materials such as glass. The glass
does not heat up. Radiant heat from the sun may be concentrated by means of
a magnifying glass, sufficient to ignite flammable material.
Shiny, silver surfaces will reflect radiant energy and not heat up. This is the
reason for the silver coating on a fire-fighter’s jacket.
Newton’s laws of motion
There are 3 laws of motion attributed to Isaac Newton known as newton laws.
They explain how forces make objects move. When a force act on an object, it
may cause change in the way the object moves. The change can be in terms of
speed or change in direction.
1. First law of motion
It states that an object will stay still or move along at a steady pace unless a
force acts on it. E.g. a rocket on a Launchpad remain in place because there is
no force acting on it to make it move.
2. Second law of motion
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It states that when a force acts on an object it makes the object to change its
speed or to move in a different direction.
E.g. when the rocket engine fires up, the force it produces lifts the rocket off
the Launchpad and into the air.
3. Third law of motion
It states that when a force acts on an object, the object pulls or pushes back.
This reaction is equal to original force but in the opposite direction.
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UNIT 19: CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM
Unit objectives
1. Define chemical equilibrium
2. Identify the types of chemical equilibria
3. Explain on Le-Charteliers principle
Many chemical reactions do not go to completion but instead attain a state of
chemical
equilibrium.
Chemical equilibrium: it is state in which the rates of the forward and reverse
reactions are equal and the concentrations of the reactants and products
remain constant.
It is a dynamic process where the conversions of reactants to products and
products to reactants are still going on, although there is no net change in the
number of
reactant and product molecules.
Since, in a system at equilibrium, both the forward and reverse reactions are
being carried out, we write its equation with a double arrow.
Consider the generalized reaction
aA + bB cC + dD. Meaning, the rate of forward reaction= rate of backward
reaction.
19.1 TYPES OF CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM

There are two types of chemical equilibrium
a) Homogenous equilibrium
This is when in an equilibrium reaction, all the reactants and the products are
present in the same phase.
b) Heterogeneous equilibrium
This is when in an equilibrium reaction, all the reactants and the products are
present in two or more than two phases.
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19.2 FACTORS THAT AFFECT CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM
This is summarized by Le Chatelier's Principle which states that if a system
at equilibrium is disturbed by a change in temperature, pressure or the
concentration of one of the components, the system will shift its equilibrium
position so as to counteract the disturbance.
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1. Changes in Concentration
Adding a reactant or product, the equilibria shifts away from the increase in
order to consume part of the added substance.
On the other hand, removing a reactant or product, the equilibria shifts toward
the decrease to replace part of the removed species.
2. Changes in Volume and Pressure
Since the pressure of gases is related directly to the concentration by PV = n
(Boyle’s law), changing the pressure by increasing/decreasing the volume of a
container will disturb an equilibrium system.
If P increases (V decreases), the system shifts to the side with a smaller
number of gas molecules (this effectively reestablishes equilibrium by
decreasing the pressure).
On the other hand, if P decreases (V increases), the system shifts to the side
with a greater number of gas molecules.
3. Changes in Temperature
Heat can be considered a reactant in an endothermic reaction and a product in
an exothermic reaction. Therefore, changes in temperature will alter the
equilibrium of these reactions.
4. Catalysts
Catalysts lower the activation energy for a reaction, so a catalyst decreases the
amount of time taken to reach equilibrium for both the forward and reverse
reactions.
The catalyst therefore does not affect the equilibrium concentrations of
reactants and products in the equilibrium mixture.
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UNIT 20: ELECTROCHEMISTRY
Unit objectives
1. Differentiate between conduction and conductivity
2. Discuss on the ionic equilibrium in electrochemistry
3. State on the solubility of products and common ion effects
4. Explain the application of electrolysis
Electrochemistry is defined as the branch of chemistry that examines the
phenomena resulting from combined chemical and electrical effects. In other
words, it is the study of production of electricity from energy released during
spontaneous chemical reactions and the use of electrical energy to bring about
non-spontaneous chemical transformations.
Many metals e.g. sodium hydroxide, chlorine, fluorine and many other
chemicals are produced by electrochemical methods. Batteries and fuel cells
convert chemical energy into electrical energy and are used on a large scale in
various instruments and devices.
Reminder: A redox reaction is a reaction which involves a change in oxidation
state of one or more elements. When a substance loses its electron, its
oxidation state increases, thus it is oxidized. When a substance gains an
electron, its oxidation state decreases thus being reduced.
20.1 TYPES OF ELECTROCHEMICAL CELLS

They typically consist of two electronic conductors (electrodes) and an ionic
conductor (electrolyte).
There are two types of cells i.e. galvanic cells and electrolytic cells
1. Galvanic (voltaic) cells
These are electrochemical cells which contain a spontaneous reaction, and
always have a positive voltage. They are the basis for the batteries that fuel
modern society.
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A voltaic cell consists of two compartments called half-cells. The half-cell where
oxidation occurs is called anode. The other half-cell where reduction occurs is
called cathode. The Electrons in voltaic cells flow from the negative electrode to
the positive electrode, which flows from anode to cathode.
Hint: Red Cat and An Ox
Reduction Cathode and Anode Oxidation is a helpful way to remember which
reaction occurs on which half-cell.
2. Electrolytic cells
In electrolytic cells, electrical energy is used to drive nonspontaneous redox
reaction.
Differences between a Galvanic cell and an Electrolytic cell
Electrochemical cell (Galvanic Cell) Electrolytic cell
A Galvanic cell converts chemical An electrolytic cell converts electrical
energy into electrical energy. energy into chemical energy.
The redox reaction is spontaneous and The redox reaction is not spontaneous
is responsible for the production of and electrical energy has to be supplied
electrical energy. to initiate the reaction
The two half-cells are set up in Both the electrodes are placed in a
different containers, being connected same container in the solution of
through the salt bridge or porous molten electrolyte.
partition.
The anode is negative and cathode is The anode is positive and cathode is
the positive electrode. The reaction at the negative electrode. The reaction at
the anode is oxidation and that at the the anode is oxidation and that at the
cathode is reduction. cathode is reduction.
The electrons are supplied by the The external battery supplies the
species getting oxidized. They move electrons. They enter through the
from anode to the cathode in the cathode and come out through the
external circuit. anode.
The two cells are as shown in the diagram below.
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Electrolysis, Conduction and conductivity
Electrolysis is the process of driving a reaction in a non-spontaneous direction
by using an electric current i.e. a chemical compound e.g. lead (II) bromide is
decomposed using electricity.
Electrolyte is an ionic compound which conducts electric current in molten or
aqueous solution, being decomposed in the process. Can be classified into non-
electrolytes (organic liquids or solutions e.g. alcohols, pure water, sugar
solution, molten sulphur), weak electrolytes (weak acids and alkalis e.g.
ammonia solution, limewater) and strong electrolytes (strong acids, alkalis and
salt solutions e.g. aqueous sulphuric acid, nitric acid, hydrochloric acid,
sodium hydroxide, copper (II) sulphate solution).
NB: Molten/aqueous ionic compounds conduct electricity because ions free to
move. In solid state, these ions are held in fixed position within the crystal
lattice. Hence solid ionic compounds do not conduct electricity. When molten
binary compound is electrolyzed, metal is formed on cathode while non-metal
is formed on anode.
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Electrode is a rod or plate where electricity enters or leaves electrolyte during
electrolysis.
Reactions occur at electrodes.
Conductors are compounds that allow electric current to pass through them.
Examples are metals, aqueous solution of acids, bases and salts etc.
Insulators are compounds that do not allow electric current to pass through
them. Examples are pure water, urea, sugar etc.
Anode
 Positive electrode connected to positive terminal of direct current source.
 Oxidation occurs here.
 Anode loses negative charge as electrons flow towards the battery,
leaving anode positively charged.
 This causes anion to discharge its electrons here to replace lost
electrons and also, negative charge are attracted to positive charge.
Cathode
 Negative electrode connected to negative terminal of direct current
source.
 Reduction occurs here.
 Cathode gains negative charge as electrons flow from the battery towards
the cathode, making cathode negatively charged.
 This causes cation to be attracted and gains electrons to be an atom.
Anion
 Negative ion
 Attracted to anode (+ve electrode).
Cation
 Positive ion
 Attracted to cathode (-ve electrode).
Example
Electrolysis of molten PbBr2
To make molten lead (II) bromide, PbBr2, the solid is strongly heated until it
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melts. To electrolyze it, current is passed through the molten PbBr 2.
What happens:
Ions present: Pb2+ and Br-
Reaction at Anode
Br- loses electrons at anode to become Br atoms. Br atoms created form bond
together to make Br2 gas.
2Br-(aq)  Br2 (g) + 2e-
Reaction at Cathode
Pb2+ gains electrons at cathode to become Pb atoms becoming liquid lead (II).
Pb2+ (aq) + 2e-  Pb (l)
Overall equation
PbBr2(l)  Pb (l) + Br2(g)
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UNIT 21: INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS
Unit objectives
1. Discuss on surface and colloidal chemistry
2. Differentiate between adsorptions and colloids
21.1 SURFACE CHEMISTRY

Surface Chemistry is the branch of chemistry which deals with the
phenomenon that occurs on the surfaces or interfaces e.g. corrosion, catalysis,
crystallization, and adsorption, colloids (emulsions and gels). For the purposes
of the course, we shall discuss colloids, adsorptions and catalysis.
Colloids
Colloids or Colloidal solutions, represent an intermediate kind of a mixture
between true solution and suspension. The colloidal state appears homogenous
to the naked eye or even an ordinary microscope (due to particles being
invisible).
Colloidal particles do not settle down under gravity.
Adsorption
Adsorption is the accumulation of molecular species at the surface rather than
in the bulk of a solid or liquid is termed as adsorption. The molecular species
accumulates at the surface is termed as adsorbate and the material on the
surface of which the adsorption takes place is called adsorbent, e.g.
(ii) O2, H2, C12 gases are adsorbed on the surface of charcoal.
(iii) Silica gels adsorb water molecules from air
Difference between adsorption and absorption
Adsorption Absorption
It involves unequal distribution of the It involves uniform distribution of the
molecular species in bulk and at the molecular species throughout the bulk
surface
It is a surface phenomenon It occurs throughout the body of
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material
It is rapid in the beginning It occurs at a uniform rate
Catalysis
Catalyst is a chemical substance which can change the rate of reaction without
being used up in that reaction and this process is known as catalysis.
A catalyst may be positive (i.e., increases rate of reaction) or negative (i.e.,
decreases rate of reaction).
Types of catalysis
(a) Homogeneous catalysis
In this catalysis, and the catalyst reactants are in the same physical state
[phase], e.g.
(b) Heterogeneous catalysis

In heterogeneous catalysis, catalyst is present in a different phase than that of
reactants, e.g.
(c) Autocatalysis
When one of the product of a reaction acts as catalyst, the process is called
autocatalysis.
Characteristics of Catalysts
 The catalyst remains unchanged in mass and chemical composition.
 In case of reversible reactions, the catalyst does not influence the
composition of reaction mixture at equilibrium. It only helps to attain the
equilibrium quickly.
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UNIT 22: UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS
Unit objectives
1. State the basic units of measurement
2. Highlight for the application of dimensional analysis
22.1 BASIC UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

The comparison of any physical quantity with its standard unit is called
measurement.
Physical quantities refers to all the quantities in terms of which laws of
physics are described, and whose measurement is necessary are called
physical quantities e.g. length, time, mass, temperature, electric current etc.
A Unit is a definite amount of a physical quantity is taken as its standard unit.
The standard unit should be easily reproducible, internationally accepted.
Fundamental units are those physical quantities which are independent to
each other are called fundamental quantities and their units are called
fundamental units.
Fundamental quantities Fundamental units Symbol

Length Metre M
Mass Kilogram Kg
Time Second S
Temperature Kelvin K
Electric current Amphere A
Amount of substance Mole Mol
Energy Joule J
Pressure Pascal Pa
Power Watt W
Force Newton N
Systems of Units
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A system of units is the complete set of units, both fundamental and derived,
for all kinds of physical quantities. The common system of units which is used
in mechanics are given below:
1. CGS (centimeter, gram, second) System In this system, the unit of length
is centimeters, the unit of mass is gram and the unit of time is second.
2. FPS (foot, pound, second) System In this system, the unit of length is foot,
the unit of mass is pound and the unit of time is second.
3. MKS (metre, kilogram, second) System In this system, the unit of length is
metre, the unit of mass is kilogram and the unit of time is second.
4. SI (International System of Units (Système international d'unités))
System/metric system this system contain seven fundamental units and two
supplementary fundamental units.
Dimensions
Dimensions of any physical quantity are those powers which are raised on
fundamental units to express its unit. The expression which shows how and
which of the base quantities represent the dimensions of a physical quantity, is
called the dimensional formula. E.g. Area (m2), volume (m3), density (kg/m3).
22.2 APPLICATIONS OF DIMENSIONS

1. To check the accuracy of physical equations.
2. To change a physical quantity from one system of units to another system of
units.
3. To obtain a relation between different physical quantitie
Elasticity
This is the ability of an object to return to original shape after being deformed
by stress e.g. rubber ball or piece of elastic
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UNIT 23: FLUID MECHANICS
Unit Objectives
1. Define the term pressure
2. State hydrostatic principles
3. Identify various types of valves
23.1 DEFINITION OF PRESSURE:

Pressure is a force exerted by the substance per unit area on another
substance.
23.2 HYDROSTATIC PRINCIPLES

The difference between the pressures of two different points within a liquid in
equilibrium is proportional to the density of the liquid, ρρ, the gravity
acceleration module, gg, and the differences in the heights of the points
considered hh. Mathematically, we have
ΔP=PB−PA=ρgh.ΔP=PB−PA=ρgh.
Pressure on a submerged object. When an object is submerged in a fluid, in

addition to atmospheric pressure P0P0, the liquid also puts pressure on the
walls of this object, which increases with depth. In the figure, a green cylinder
is submerged in a liquid. Note that the forces on the sides of the cylinder
cancel each other out, but the pressure at the top (Pt=P0+ρgyaPt=P0+ρgya) is
less than the pressure at the bottom (Pb=P0+ρgybPb=P0+ρgyb). With this, there
is a resulting hydrostatic force pushing out the cylinder. Depending on the
weight, the cylinder may float or sink. The distribution of pressure in a fluid is
due to:
1. The existence of a gravitational field
2. An acceleration of the fluid by external forces (non-gravitational)
3. A combination of both causes.
Importantly, for the air, as the density is very low, we can ignore the pressure
variation with height when this variation is of the order of a few meters.
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23.3 TYPES OF VALVES
Ball Valve
Ball valve is a quarter turn operated valve. The closure member is a spherical
plug with a through hole. When the valve is in open state, the through hole is
in-line with the fluid flow and hence, the fluid passes through it. The valve is
closed by rotating the globe by 90 Deg. such that the hole now becomes
perpendicular to the flow and hence, stops the flow.
The seat is usually circumferential, made up of soft materials to offer a tight
shutoff. The seat can be made either out of plastic or metals. Ball valves are
not recommended to be used in a partially open condition. Due to
misalignment between the flow direction and opening of the plug, large
pressure drop takes place in partially open condition.
Due to above specified challenges, ball valves are mostly used in shutoff
applications. Ball valves are commonly used in steam, water, oil, gas, air,
corrosive fluids. They can handle slurries and dusty dry fluids. Ball valves are
not used with abrasive and fibrous materials as it poses risk of damage to the
seat and plug surface.
Gate Valve
Gate valve is a sliding type of valve. In gate valves, the closing member is a
metal gate. The gate slides down to close the valve. In fully open conditions,
the flow area is equal to the area of the pipe and hence, there is negligible
pressure drop across the valve.
Gate valve should ideally be used as on-off valve. It is not advisable to use
them as throttling valves because in partly open conditions, erosion of gate
might take place. In partially open conditions, due to vibrations, valve is
exposed to quick wear and tear. Also, during closing and opening, there is
considerable amount of friction and hence, opening and closing these vales
quickly and frequently is not possible.
These valves find their use in petrochemical industry due to the fact that they
can work with metal-metal sealing.
Plug Valve
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Similar to ball valves, plug valves are also quarter turn type of valves. This
valve consists of a plug which can be either cylindrical or conical in shape. The
plug has a through slit which remains in-line with the flow in the open
condition. When the plug is turned by 90 Deg., this slit becomes perpendicular
to flow and the valve gets closed.
Plug valves are well suited to handle fluids with suspended solids, slurries etc.
Plug valves are primarily used for on-off applications. When used for throttling
purpose, the pressure drop through the valve is higher because of
misalignment between flow direction and the direction of the opening (slit).
Butterfly Valve
Butterfly valves are most simple yet versatile valves. They are quarter turn
operated valves which are commonly used in multiple industries for varied
applications. Quarter turn operation ensures quick operating of the valve. In
the open condition there is minimum obstruction to the fluid flow through the
valve as the flow passes around the disc aerodynamically. This results in very
less pressure drop through the valve.
Due to its unique mode of operation, the valve can be actuated easily without
requiring high torques and wear and tear. Due to lack of friction, use of bulky
actuators can be avoided. Another advantage offered by butterfly valve is their
compact size. The valve is quite compact, resembling a metal disc. This makes
their installation very easy. They can be used to handle slurries and fluids with
suspended solids as there are no cavities for deposition of solid particles inside
the valve body.
Globe ValveGlobe Valve
Globe valve is a linear motion type of valves and is typically used in both on-off
and throttling applications. In globe valves, the flow of the fluid through valve
follows an S-path. Due to this, the flow direction changes twice which results
in higher pressure drops. Due to other advantages offered by them, they are
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widely used in applications where pressure drop through the valve is not a
controlling factor.
These valves are generally not used beyond sizes larger than NPS 12 (DN 300)
as enormous forces are exerted on the stem to open or close the valve under
fluid pressures. Globe valves require high pressures on the seat to keep it
closed when the fluid exerts pressure from the bottom of the disc.
They are used for both on-off and throttling applications but special types of
trims are required for throttling applications where large pressure drops are
involved. These valves can be used in three configurations, depending upon the
applications-
a. Tee pattern
b. Angle Pattern
c. Wye Pattern
When the disc is removed from the stem and allowed to rest on its own weight,
globe valves can be used as non-return valves. Machining of seats is easier and
cheaper compared to other types of valves.
Pinch Valve
Pinch valves consist of a plastic tube/sleeve which is made up of reinforced
elastomers. The sealing/ closing action is achieved by throttling or pinching
this sleeve/tube. Pinch valves are best suited for handling slurries and fluids
having suspended solids. Pinch valves offer many benefits over the other types
of valves. They can be used for handling corrosive fluids as there is no contact
between the fluid carried and the actual valve mechanism. Once suitable sleeve
material is selected, this valve can work with a variety of fluids. As fluid being
carried does not come in contact with the metal parts, these valves can be used
for food grade applications also.
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Generally, pinch valves are suitable for low pressure applications. When used
with abrasive slurries, they should be used as on-off valves; if used for
throttling purposes, the sleeve will get worn out.
Working of Disc Check Valve - Spring Loaded Disc Check Valves
Disc check valves, also called as non-return valves allow the flow to pass
through them in only one direction and stop the flow in reverse direction.
Because of this unique directional property, disc check valves are essentially
used for some critical applications in the steam systems.
There are four major types of disc check valves as follows-
1. Lift Check Valve- Lift check valves work simply on the principle of gravity.
When the fluid comes in the forward direction, the disc gets lifted from the seat
against the gravitational force by the force of incoming fluid. The valve thus
allows fluid to pass in this direction. When the fluid comes in opposite
direction, it supports the force of gravity and the disc remains on the seat,
keeping the valve closed.
Tight shutoff can be difficult to achieve in case back pressures are low. The
valve will leak the fluid in such situations.
2. Swing Check Valve- In this kind of check valve, the disc or the closing
element swings around a point to which it is hinged. When the fluid comes in
the forward direction, the disc swings in an open position allowing the fluid to
pass. When the fluid flow comes in the opposite direction, the disc swings and
rests on the seat to lose it.
3. Spring loaded Check Valves- In this kind of check valves, tight shut-off it
provided using a spring. The spring holds back the disc on the seat. Even in
the forward flow condition, the fluid should exert some pressure, called
cracking pressure in order to open the disc against the spring pressure.
4. Diaphragm Type Check Valve- This kind of check valves uses diaphragms
arranged in such a way that that open to allow the flow only in forward
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direction. When flow comes from the reverse direction, the diaphragms remain
closed.
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UNIT 24: PROPERTIES OF MATTER
Unit Objectives
1. Explain elasticity of materials

2. Describe the surface tension of various substances
24.1 ELASTICITY
Elasticity is the ability of a deformed material body to return to its original
shape and size when the forces causing the deformation are removed. A body
with this ability is said to behave (or respond) elastically. To a greater or lesser
extent, most solid materials exhibit elastic behavior, but there is a limit to the
magnitude of the force and the accompanying deformation within which elastic
recovery is possible for any given material. This limit, called the elastic limit, is
the maximum stress or force per unit area within a solid material that can
arise before the onset of permanent deformation. Stresses beyond the elastic
limit cause a material to yield or flow. For such materials the elastic limit
marks the end of elastic behaviour and the beginning of plastic behaviour. For
most brittle materials, stresses beyond the elastic limit result in fracture with
almost no plastic deformation.
24.2 SURFACE TENSION

Surface tension is a physical property equal to the amount of force per unit
area necessary to expand the surface of a liquid. It is the tendency of a fluid
surface to occupy the smallest possible surface area. Surface tension is a
principal factor in capillary action. The addition of substances called
surfactants can reduce the surface tension of a liquid. For example, adding
detergent to water decreases its surface tension. While pepper sprinkled on
water floats, pepper sprinkled on water with detergent will sink.
Surface tension forces are due to intermolecular forces between the liquid's
molecules at the liquid's outer boundaries. The units of surface tension are
either energy per unit area or force per unit length.
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Examples of Surface Tension
Surface tension allows some insects and other small animals, which are denser
than water, to walk across its surface without sinking.
1. The rounded shape of water droplets on a surface is due to surface

tension.
2. Tears of wine form rivulets on the glass of an alcoholic beverage (not just
wine) due to the interaction between the different surface tension values of
ethanol and water and the faster evaporation of alcohol compared with water.
3. Oil and water separate because of the tension between two dissimilar
liquids. In this case, the term is "interface tension", but it is simply a type of
surface tension between two liquids.
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UNIT 25: STATICS
Unit objectives
1. State factors affecting equilibrium

2. Explain on the application of static forces
Statics: in physics, the subdivision of mechanics that is concerned with the
forces that act on bodies at rest under equilibrium conditions. Statics assumes
that the bodies with which it deals are perfectly rigid. It also holds that the
sum of all the forces acting on a body at rest has to be zero (i.e., the forces
involved balance one another) and that there must be no tendency for the
forces to turn the body about any axis. These three conditions are independent
of one another, and their expression in mathematical form comprises the
equations of equilibrium.
25. 1 FACTORS AFFECTING EQUILIBRIUM

To ensure equilibrium:
1. The forces acting on a structure must balance,
2. Net torque acting on the structure should be zero.
25.2 APPLICATION OF STATIC FORCES

1. Muscle and Joints
• It is helpful to view muscles as a simple machines and draw them as free

body diagrams.
• In muscles, the input force is often much greater than the output force.
• Very large forces are also created in the joints. Because muscles can contract
but not expand beyond their resting length, joints and muscles often exert
forces that act in opposite directions, and thus subtract
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The Forearm of a Person Holding a Book: (a. ) The biceps exert a force FB to
support the weight of the forearm and the book. The triceps are assumed to be
relaxed. (b.) An approximately equivalent mechanical system with the pivot at
the elbow joint
2. Arches and Domes
• Arches and domes are structures that exhibit structural strength and
can span large areas with no intermediate supports.
• Arches span large areas by resolving forces into compressive stresses

and eliminating tensile stresses.
• The most common true arch configurations are the fixed arch, the two-
hinged arch, and the three-hinged arch.
• A dome is basically an arch that has been rotated around its central
vertical axis.
• Domes are basically arches that have been rotated on their vertical axis,
and have the same capabilities and properties of arches.
• Domes can be divided into two kinds, simple and compound.
3. Simple Machines
• A simple machine is a device that changes the direction of a force or

augments a force; simple machines fall into six categories.
• The six classifications of simple machines were established by

renaissance scientists; they are as follows: lever, wheel and axle, pulley,
inclined plane, wedge and screw.
• Simple machines can be joined with other devices to create a more

complicated machine. These building blocks are used to explain how machines
work.
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• The force output by a simple machine can exceed the force that was put
into the machine.
• A simple machine has an applied force that works against a load force. If
there are no frictional losses, the work done on the load is equal to the work
done by the applied force. This allows an increase in the output force at the
cost of a proportional decrease in distance moved by the load.
• The ratio of the output force to the input force is the mechanical
advantage of the machine. If the machine does not absorb energy, its
mechanical advantage can be calculated from the machine’s geometry. For
instance, the mechanical advantage of a lever is equal to the ratio of its lever
arms.
• Simple machines which do not experience frictional losses are called

ideal machines. For these ideal machines, the power in (rate of energy input) in
equal to the power out (rate of energy output): Pin=PoutPin=Pout.
Lever: The amount of force produced by a machine can not be greater than the
amount of force put into it.
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UNIT 26: HEAT
Unit Objectives
1. Defines used in heat
2. Determine the various temperature scales and type of thermometers
3. Outline the methods of determining heat capacity
4. Explain the application of heat capacities and heat transfer

Temperature
Temperature is defined as a measure of the average kinetic energy of the

particles in a sample of matter, expressed in terms of units or degrees
designated on a standard scale.
Temperature scales and types of thermometers
Types of thermometers
A wide variety of thermometers can be used to measure temperature, ranging

from liquid-in-glass thermometers to different types of gas thermometers.
Constant volume thermometer
A constant-volume thermometer uses the known properties of gases to allow

for the accurate measurement of temperature. A gas is sealed and kept at a
constant volume. As the temperature changes, the volume or pressure of the
gas will change, as well. The amount of pressure required to maintain a
constant volume of the gas indicates change in temperature. Constant-volume
gas thermometers are often used to calibrate other types of thermometers.
It is made of a bulb that is filled with the gas and attached to a mercury
manometer, which measures pressure. The manometer is connected to a piece
of flexible tubing, and both are partially filled with mercury. The mercury level
in the manometer is fixed, while the mercury level in the tube, or reservoir,
moves up or down depending on changes in pressure.
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Fig: Constant-volume thermometer
There are a few factors that could cause errors in the thermometer's readings,
such as the air in the tube not heating properly or the air not being an ideal
gas. However, constant-volume gas thermometers are popular with scientists
because they cover a wide range of temperatures and tend to be very accurate,
even in a variety of conditions. Hydrogen or helium are the gases commonly
used in the constant-volume thermometer.
Mercury in glass thermometer
It consists of mercury in a glass tube. Calibrated marks on the tube allow the
temperature to be read by the length of the mercury within the tube which
varies according to the heat given to it. To increase its sensitivity, there is
usually a bulb of mercury at the end of the thermometer which contains most
of the mercury; expansion and contraction of this volume of mercury is then
amplified in the much narrower bore of the tube. The space above the mercury
may be filled with nitrogen or it may be a vacuum.
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Fig: Liquid-in-glass thermometer.
Resistance thermometer
The thermometer consists of a sensor whose electrical resistance is highly

temperature dependent and changes with temperature in a predictable way.
Platinum is most commonly used as a sensor, but semiconducting materials
such as thermistors may also be used. In a platinum resistance thermometer,
a platinum wire of high purity is located near the tip of a closed protective
tube, to make a probe which can be inserted in the measurement environment.
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Fig: The resistance thermometer
Thermoelectric thermometer
Also called the thermocouple thermometer. Two wires of dissimilar materials

are connected to form a circuit with two junctions. The two junctions are
maintained at different temperatures. An electric current flows in the circuit as
heat is absorbed at one of the junctions and rejected at the other. The direction
of the current depends on the materials making the thermocouple. The voltage
generated is directly proportional to the temperature gradient between the
junctions and can hence be utilized for measuring temperatures.
Fig: The thermoelectric thermometer, the thermocouple.

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26.2 THE THERMODYNAMIC SCALE
One of the difficulties in the accurate measurement of temperature is that the
various types of thermometers e.g., mercury-in-glass, platinum resistance,
thermoelectric and so on give different readings when used to measure the
same temperature because the value obtained depends on the properties of the
substances used in the thermometer.
To overcome this challenge, an absolute scale called the thermodynamic scale

which is independent of the properties of any substance used in thermometers
was devised. The thermodynamic scale is based on the early observation that
Gases expand when heated and contract when cooled. If pressure remains
constant, the volume of a fixed mass of gas increases or decreases by of its
volume for every degree (0C rise or fall in temperature. Thus the volume of a
gas decreases with decrease in temperature until at -273oC it will be zero. This
temperature is referred to as absolute zero (OK). This is the lowest temperature
at which a gas can exist. In practice however, gases liquefy long before they
reach -273˚C.
Fig: The thermodynamic scale
Methods of determining heat capacity
Specific heat capacity

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When a body is heated, its temperature rises. The amount of heat given to a
body is directly proportional to the mass of the body and the temperature rise.
i.e. Q∝M∆T ⇒Q=MCT where C is a constant dependent on the material of the

body.
Hence C= Q/M∆T
If M=1 Kg and ∆T=1℃ (1K)then C = Q.
C is the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of a

substance by 1℃. C is the specific heat of the substance.
Table: Specific heat capacities of some solids
Substance Specific heat capacity (C)

J/KgK
Aluminium 900
Brass 370
Copper 390
Cork 2000
Glass 670
Ice 2100
Iron 460
Lead 130
Silver 230
Tin 230
Where electrical energy is used to raise the temperature of a body whose

specific heat is known, such electrical energy is converted to heat energy which
is demonstrated through the rise of temperature of the body.
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i.e. VIt=MC∆T
where V = Voltage
I = current in amperes
t = time in seconds
26.3 CALCULATIONS INVOLVING HEAT CAPACITIES

The following data was obtained from an experiment used to determine the
specific heat capacity of copper by the electrical method.
Mass of copper block = 200 g
Initial temperature of the block = 22˚C
Ammeter reading = 0.5 A
Voltmeter reading = 3.0 V
Final temperature of the block = 30˚C
Time of heating = 7 minutes.
Use the data to calculate the specific heat capacity of copper.
What is the significance of this value?
Solution
Electrical energy spent = VIt
where V = Voltage
I = current in amperes
t = time in seconds
Heat gained by the metal block = Q=MC∆T
Assuming that there is no heat loss to the surrounding
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C = VIt/M∆T = (3.0 ×0.5 × (7×60))/(0.200 ×8) = 393.75
∴Specific heat capacity = 394 J/kgK
The significance of this value is that to raise the temperature of 1kg of copper
by 1K, 394 Joules of heat energy is required.
Exercise
1. A 0.250-kg block of a pure material is heated from 20.0ºC to 65.0ºC by the

addition of 4.35 kJ of energy. Calculate its specific heat and identify the
substance of which it is most likely composed.
2. What is meant by the specific heat capacity of a substance? Give a brief

account of how the specific heat capacity of a metal block a few cm in linear
dimensions may be determined.
Latent heat
Melting is a process in which a solid is converted into a liquid at constant

temperature. On the other hand, boiling is a process in which a liquid is
converted to vapour at constant temperature. When a substance is undergoing
change of phase (e.g. from solid to liquid or from liquid to gas), energy is
required for this process. When a substance is changing from solid state to
liquid state, the heat absorbed in the process is called the latent heat of fusion
of the substance.
26.4 APPLICATION OF HEAT CAPACITIES AND LATENT HEAT

Steaming Food
The specific latent heat of vaporization for water is large. Plates filled with food
are able to absorb heat from the hot steam. The condensation of steam at the
base of the plate releases a large quantity of heat and thus enables food such
as cakes, fish, eggs and others to be steamed.
Cooling drinks with cold water and ice
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A glass of hot water can be cooled faster by adding cold water or ice into it.
During the melting of ice, a large quantity of specific latent heat is absorbed
from the drink and this causes the drink towards a temperature that
approaches the melting limit of ice. Ice absorbs a large quantity of latent heat
during the process of melting.
Extinguishing fire by using boiling water
Water that is quickly boiled will become steam which is able to absorb a larger
quantity of latent heat from the fire.
Melting Ice on the road by using Salt
It is known that the specific latent heat of fusion of salt is higher than of ice.
Therefore, when salt is put on the road - having a thick layer of ice, salt will
require more heat energy and absorb energy from the ice. Therefore, Ice will
melt.
Heat transfers
Heat can be transferred from one place to another by three methods:

conduction in solids, convection of fluids (liquids or gases), and radiation
through anything that will allow radiation to pass. The method used to transfer
heat is usually the one that is the most efficient. If there is a temperature
difference in a system, heat will always move from higher to lower
temperatures.
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UNIT 27: DYNAMICS
Unit Objectives
1. State and explain Newton’s law of motion
2. Explain on inertia and momentum
Dynamics is the branch of applied mathematics concerned with the study of

forces and torques and their effect on motion,
27.1 INERTIA
The property of an object by virtue of which it cannot change its state of rest or
of uniform motion along a straight line its own, is called inertia. Inertia is a
measure of mass of a body. Greater the mass of a body greater will be its
inertia or vice-versa.
Inertia is of three types:
(i) Inertia of Rest- When a bus or train starts to move suddenly, the passengers
sitting in it falls backward due to inertia of rest.
(ii) Inertia of Motion -When a moving bus or train stops suddenly, the
passengers sitting in it jerks in forward direction due to inertia of motion.
(iii) Inertia of Direction- We can protect yourself from rain by an umbrella
because rain drops cannot change its direction its own due to inertia of
direction.
Force
Force is a push or pull which changes or tries to change the state of rest, the
state of uniform motion, size or shape of a body.
Force is a vector, having both magnitude and direction
Its SI unit is newton (N)
Forces can be categorized into two types:
(i) Contact Forces -Frictional force, tensional force, spring force, normal force,
etc are the contact forces.
(ii) Action at a Distance Forces- Electrostatic force, gravitational force, magnetic
force, etc are action at a distance forces.
Linear Momentum
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The total amount of motion present in a body is called its momentum. Linear
momentum of a body is equal to the product of its mass and velocity. It is
denoted by p.
Linear momentum p = mu.
Its S1 unit is kg-m/s and dimensional formula is [MLT-1].
It is a vector quantity and its direction is in the direction of velocity of the body.
27.2 NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION

1. Newton’s First Law of Motion
A body continues to be in its state of rest or in uniform motion along a straight
line unless an external force is applied on it.
This law is also called law of inertia.
Examples
i) If a moving vehicle suddenly stops then the passengers inside the vehicle
bend outward.
2. Newton’s Second Law of Motion
Newton’s second law is the relation between acceleration and net force
"Acceleration of the objects is directly proportional to the net or resultant force
acting on it and inversely proportional to the mass of the object.
F = m ×a
Acceleration, in physics, is the rate of change of velocity of an object with
respect to time. The SI unit for acceleration is metre per second squared (m
s−2).
. Examples
(i) It is easier for a strong adult to push a full shopping cart than it is for a
baby to push the same cart. (This is depending on the net force acting on the
object).
(ii) It is easier for a person to push an empty shopping cart than a full one (This
is depending on the mass of the object).
Worked Example 1:
Let us consider the problem: A 15 kg object moving to the west with an
acceleration of 10m/s2. What is the net force acting on an object?
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Substituting the values in the above given formula,
Net Force (Fnet)= 15 x 10 = 150 N Therefore, the value of Net force = 150 N
A softball has a mass of 1.5 kg and hits the catcher's glove with a force of 30
N? What is the acceleration of the softball?
Solution:
Substituting the values in the above given formula, Acceleration = 30 / 1.5 =
20 m/s2 Therefore, the value of Acceleration is 20 m/s2
Question 3: Consider the problem on that on the object having initial mass of
4 kg. Two forces are acting on the object. Force F1 equal to 10 Newton and
another force F2 equal to 4 Newton’s. Direction of F2 is opposite to the
direction of F1. Suppose that mass of the object decreases from 4 kg to 2 kg
when forces are applied to the object. Calculate the acceleration of the object.
Solution:
Now here the resultant force acting on the object is

F1
- F2 = 10 - 4 = 6N
Resultant force direction is same as the direction of the F1.

Resultant force = (m2 - m1) a
Therefore,
a = 62
a = 3 m / sec2
3. Newton’s Third Law of Motion

For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction and both acts on two
different bodies
Mathematically F12 = – F21
Examples
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(i) Swimming becomes possible because of third law of motion.
(ii) Jumping of a man from a boat onto the bank of a river.
(iii) Jerk is produced in a gun when bullet is fired from it.
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UNIT 28: LIGHT
Unit Objectives
1. State the properties of light
2. Highlight the interference and diffraction of light
3. Explain on the polarization of light
Light is electromagnetic radiation that has properties of waves. The

electromagnetic spectrum can be divided into several bands based on the
wavelength. Visible light represents a narrow group of wavelengths between
about 380 nm and 730 nm
Our eyes interpret these wavelengths as different colors. If only a single

wavelength or limited range of wavelengths are present and enter our eyes,
they are interpreted as a certain color. If a single wavelength is present we say
that we have monochromatic light. If all wavelengths of visible light are
present, our eyes interpret this as white light. If no wavelengths in the visible
range are present, we interpret this as dark.
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28.1 PROPERTIES OF LIGHT
1. Light travels in straight line.
2. It is made of electric and magnetic vectors that oscillate mutually
perpendicular.
3. Direction of wave propagation is perpendicular to both electric and magnetic
vectors.
4. It is made of photons. These photons have rest mass zero and they travel
with a speed of 3 × 10^8 m/s.
5. It does not need material medium for propagation.
6. It is transverse in nature.
7. It shows the phenomena of reflection, refraction, diffraction and
polarisation.
8. Light rays carry no charge and hence they don't deviate in electric and
magnetic fields.
9. Energy possessed by each photon is E = hf where h is Plank's constant ( 6.6
× 10^-34 Js) and f is frequency.
10. On passing through prism it separates into constituent colours and what
we obtain is called spectrum ( VIBGYOR).
Interaction of Light with Matter
Velocity of Light and Refractive Index
The energy of light is related to its frequency and velocity as follows:
E = h = hC/
Where E = energy
h = Planck's constant, 6.62517 x 10-27 erg/sec
 = frequency
C = velocity of light = 2.99793 x 1010 cm/sec
= wavelength
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The velocity of light, C, in a vacuum is 2.99793 x 1010cm/sec. Light cannot
travel faster than this, but if it travels through a substance, its velocity will
decrease. Note that from the equation given above-
C = 
The frequency of vibration, , remains constant when the light passes
through a substance. Thus, if the velocity, C, is reduced on passage through a
substance, the wavelength, , must also decrease.
We here define refractive index, n, of a material or substance as the ratio of the

speed of light in a vacuum, C, to the speed of light in a material through which
it passes, Cm.
n = C/Cm
Note that the value of refractive index will always be greater than 1.0, since Cm
can never be greater than C. In general, Cm depends on the density of the
material, with Cm decreasing with increasing density. Thus, higher density
materials will have higher refractive indices.
The refractive index of any material depends on the wavelength of light because
different wavelengths are interfered with to different extents by the atoms that
make up the material. In general refractive index varies linearly with
wavelength.
Materials can be divided into 2 classes based on how the velocity of light of a
particular wavelength varies in the material.
1. Materials whose refractive index not depend on the direction that the
light travels are called isotropic materials. In these materials the velocity of
light does not depend on the direction that the light travels. Isotropic materials
have a single, constant refractive index for each wavelength. Minerals that
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crystallize in the isometric system, by virtue of their symmetry, are isotropic.
Similarly, glass, gases, most liquids and amorphous solids are isotropic.
2. Materials whose refractive index does depend on the direction that the
light travels are called anisotropic materials. These types of materials will have
a range of refractive indices between two extreme values for each wavelength.
Anisotropic materials can be further divided into two subclasses, although the
reasoning behind these subdivisions will become clear in a later lecture.
a. Minerals that crystallize in the tetragonal and hexagonal crystal systems

(as well as some plastics) are uniaxial and are characterized by 2 extreme
refractive indices for each wavelength.
b. Minerals that crystallize in the triclinic, monoclinic, and orthorhombic

crystal systems are biaxial and are characterized by 3 refractive indices, one of
which is intermediate between the other two.
Air, since it is a gas, is isotropic. The refractive index of air is usually taken as
1.0, although its true value is 1.0003.
28.2 REFLECTION AND REFRACTION OF LIGHT

When light strikes an interface between two substances with different refractive
indices, two things occur. An incident ray of light striking the interface at an
angle, i, measured between a line perpendicular to the interface and the
propagation direction of the incident ray, will be reflected off the interface at
the same angle, i. In other words the angle of reflection is equal to the angle of
incidence.
If the second substance is transparent to light, then a ray of light will enter the
substance with different refractive index, and will be refracted, or bent, at an
angle r, the angle of refraction. The angle of refraction is dependent on the
angle of incidence and the refractive index of the materials on either side of the
interface according to Snell's Law:
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ni sin (i) = nr sin (r)
Note that if the angle of incidence is 0o (i.e. the light enters perpendicular to
the interface) that some of the light will be reflected directly back, and the
refracted ray will continue along the same path. This can be seen from Snell's
law, since sin(0o) = 0, making sin (r) = 0, and resulting in r = 0.
There is also an angle, ic, called the critical angle for total internal reflection
where the refracted ray travels along the interface between the two substances.
This occurs when the angle r = 90o. In this case, applying Snell's law:
ni sin (ic) = nr sin (90o) = nr [since sin (90o) = 1]
sin (ic) = nr/ni

Dispersion of Light
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The fact that refractive indices differ for each wavelength of light produces an
effect called dispersion. This can be seen by shining a beam of white light into
a triangular prism made of glass. White light entering such a prism will be
refracted in the prism by different angles depending on the wavelength of the
light.
The refractive index for longer wavelengths (red) are lower than those for
shorter wavelengths (violet). This results in the a greater angle of refraction for
the longer wavelengths than for the shorter wavelengths. (Shown here are the
paths taken for a wavelength of 800 nm, angle r800 and for a wavelength of
300 nm, angle r300 ). When the light exits from the other side of the prism, we
see the different wavelengths dispersed to show the different colors of the
spectrum.
Absorption of Light
When light enters a transparent material some of its energy is dissipated as
heat energy, and it thus loss some of its intensity. When this absorption of
energy occurs selectively for different wavelengths of light, they light that gets
transmitted through the material will show only those wavelengths of light that
are not absorbed. The transmitted wavelengths will then be seen as color,
called the absorption color of the material.
For example, if we measure the intensity of light, Io, for each wavelength before
it is transmitted through a material, and measure the intensity, I, for each
wavelength after it has passed through the material, and plot I/Io versus
wavelength we obtain the absorption curve for that material as shown here.
The absorption curve (continuous line) for the material in this example shows
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that the light exiting the material will have a yellow-green color, called the
absorption color. An opaque substance would have an absorption curve such
as that labeled "Dark", i.e. no wavelengths would be transmitted.
Sunlight, on passing through the atmosphere has absorption curve as shown,

thus we see it as white light, since all wavelengths are present.
28.3 POLARIZATION OF LIGHT

Normal light vibrates equally in all direction perpendicular to its path of
propagation. If the light is constrained to vibrate in only on plane, however, we
say that it is plane polarized light. The direction that the light vibrates is called
the vibration direction, which for now will be perpendicular to the direction.
There are two common ways that light can become polarized.
• The first involves reflection off of a non-metallic surface, such as glass or

paint. An unpolarized beam of light, vibrating in all directions perpendicular to
its path strikes such a surface and is reflected. The reflected beam will be
polarized with vibration directions parallel to the reflecting surface
(perpendicular to the page as indicated by the open circles on the ray path). If
some of this light also enters the material and is refracted at an angle 90o to
the path of the reflected ray, it too will become partially polarized, with
vibration directions again perpendicular to the path of the refracted ray, but in
the plane perpendicular to the direction of vibration in the reflected ray (the
plane of the paper, as shown in the drawing).
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• Polarization can also be achieved by passing the light through a
substance that absorbs light vibrating in all directions except one. Anisotropic
crystals have this property in certain directions, called privileged directions,
and we will discuss these properties when we discuss uniaxial and biaxial
crystals. Crystals were used to produce polarized light in microscopes built
before about 1950. The device used to make polarized light in modern
microscopes is a Polaroid, a trade name for a plastic film made by the Polaroid
Corporation. A Polaroid consists of long-chain organic molecules that are
aligned in one direction and placed in a plastic sheet. They are placed close
enough to form a closely spaced linear grid, that allows the passage of light
vibrating only in the same direction as the grid. Light vibrating in all other
directions is absorbed. Such a device is also called a polarizer.
If a beam on non-polarized light encounters a polarizer, only light vibrating

parallel to the polarizing direction of the polarizer will be allowed to pass. The
light coming out on the other side will then be plane polarized, and will be
vibrating parallel to the polarizing direction of the polarizer. If another
polarizer with its polarization direction oriented perpendicular to the first
polarizer is placed in front of the beam of now polarized light, then no light will
penetrate the second polarizer. In this case we say that the light has been
extinguished.
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Polaroid sunglasses use these same principles. For example, incoming solar
radiation is reflected off of the surface of the ocean or the painted hood of your
car. Reflected light coming off of either of these surfaces will be polarized such
that the vibration directions are parallel to the reflected surface, or
approximately horizontal (as in the first method of polarization discussed
above). Polaroid sunglasses contain polarizers with the polarization direction
oriented vertically. Wearing such glasses will cut out all of the horizontally
polarized light reflecting off the water surface or hood of your car.
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UNIT 29: OPTICAL INSTRUMENT
Unit Objectives
1. Outline the types of optical instrument’s
2. Highlight on the powers of lens
3. Explain on the working principles of the microscope
29.1 TYPES OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

The Magnifying Glass
A magnifying glass is a convex lens that lets the observer see a larger image of
the object being observed.
Key Points
• The magnification of a magnifying glass depends upon where it is placed

between the user’s eye and the object being viewed and upon the total distance
between eye and object.
• The magnifying power is the ratio of the sizes of the images formed on
the user’s retina with and without the lens.
• The highest magnifying power is obtained by putting the lens very close
to the eye and moving both the eye and the lens together to obtain the best
focus
• lens: an object, usually made of glass, that focuses or defocuses the light
that passes through it
• diopter: a unit of measure of the power of a lens or mirror, equal to the

reciprocal of its focal length in meters. Myopia is diagnosed and measured in
diopters
• convex: curved or bowed outward like the outside of a bowl or sphere or

circle
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A magnifying glass is a convex lens that lets the observer see a larger image of
the object under observation. The lens is usually mounted in a frame with a
handle, as shown below.
Magnifying Glass: A magnifying glass is a convex lens that lets the observer see
a larger image of the object under observation
The magnification of a magnifying glass depends upon where it is placed

between the user’s eye and the object being viewed and upon the total distance
between eye and object.
The magnifying power is the ratio of the sizes of the images formed on the
user’s retina with and without the lens.
The highest magnifying power is obtained by putting the lens very close to
the eye and moving both the eye and the lens together to obtain the best focus.
When the lens is used this way, the magnifying power can be found with the
following equation:
MP0=14⋅Φ+1
where Φ
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= optical power. When the magnifying glass is held close to the object and the
eye is moved away, the magnifying power is approximated by:
MP0=14⋅Φ
Typical magnifying glasses have a focal length of 25cm and an optical power of
four diopters. This type of glass would be sold as a 2x magnifier, but a typical
observer would see about one to two times magnification depending on the lens
position.
The earliest evidence of a magnifying device was Aristophanes’s “lens” from 424
BC, a glass globe filled with water. (Seneca wrote that it could be used to read
letters “no matter how small or dim.”) Roger Bacon described the properties of
magnifying glasses in the 13th century, and eyeglasses were also developed in
13th-century Italy.
The Camera
Cameras are optical devices that allow a user to record an image of an object,
either on photo paper or digitally.
• Cameras work very similarly to how the human eye works. The iris is
similar to the lens; the pupil is similar to the aperture; and the eyelid is similar
to the shutter.
• Cameras are a modern evolution of the camera obscura. The camera

obscura was a device used to project images.
• The most important part of a camera is the lens, which allows the image
to be magnified and focused. This can be done manually on some cameras and
automatically on newer cameras.
• Movie cameras work by taking many pictures each second and then
showing each image in order very quickly to give the effect that the pictures are
moving. This is where the name “movie” comes from.
Key Terms
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• shutter speed: The duration of time for which the shutter of a camera
remains open when exposing photographic film or other photosensitive
material to light for the purpose of recording an image
What is a Camera?
A camera is a device that allows you to record images, either on film or

digitally. Cameras can record images as well as movies; movies themselves got
their name from moving pictures. The word camera comes from the Latin
phrase camera obscura, which means “dark chamber. ” The camera obscura
was an early instrument for projecting images from slides. The camera that you
use today is an evolution of the camera obscura.
A camera is usually comprised of an opening, or aperture, that allows light to

enter into a hollow area and a surface that records the light at the other end. In
the 20th century, these images would be stored on photographic paper that
then had to be developed, but now most cameras store images digitally.
How does a Camera Work?
Cameras have a lot of components that allow them to work. Let’s look at them
one at a time.
The Lens
The camera lens allows the light to enter into the camera and is typically
convex. There are many types of lenses that can be used, each for a different
type of photography. There are lenses for close-ups, for sports, for architecture,
and for portraits.
The two major features of a lens are focal length and aperture. The focal length
determines the magnification of the image, and the aperture controls the light
intensity. The f-number on a camera controls the shutter speed. This is the
speed at which the shutter, which acts as its “eyelid,” opens and closes. The
larger the aperture, the smaller the f-number must be in order to get the
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shutter opened and closed fully. The time it takes to open and close the shutter
is called the exposure. shows an example of two lenses of the same size but
with different apertures.
Focus
Some cameras have a fixed focus, and only objects of a certain size at a certain
distance from the camera will be in focus. Other cameras allow you to
manually or automatically adjust the focus. shows a picture taken with a
camera with manual focus; this allows the user to determine which objects will
be in focus and which will not. The range of distance within which objects
appear sharp and clear is called the depth of field.
Exposure
The aperture controls the intensity of the light entering the camera, and the
shutter controls the exposure — the amount of time that the light is allowed
into the camera.
Shutter
The shutter is what opens and closes to allow light through the aperture. The
speed at which it opens and closes is called the f-number. For a larger
aperture, the f-number is generally small for a quick shutter speed. For a
smaller aperture, the f-number is larger, allowing for a slower shutter speed.
The Compound Microscope
A compound microscope is made of two convex lenses; the first, the ocular
lens, is close to the eye, and the second is the objective lens.
Key Points
• A compound microscope uses multiple lenses to create an enlarged

image that is easier for a human eye to see; this is due to the fact that the final
image is farther away from the observer, and therefore the eye is more relaxed
when viewing the image.
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• The object is placed just beyond to focal length of the objective lens. An
enlarged image is then captured by the objective lens, which acts as the object
for the ocular lens. The ocular lens is closer to the new image than its focal
length, causing it to act as a magnifying glass.
• Since the final image is just a multiple of the size of the first image, the
final magnification is a product of both magnifications from each lens.
Key Terms
• Chromatic aberration: an optical aberration, in which an image has

colored fringes, caused by differential refraction of light of different wavelengths
A compound microscope uses multiple lenses to magnify an image for an

observer. It is made of two convex lenses: the first, the ocular lens, is close to
the eye; the second is the objective lens.
Compound microscopes are much larger, heavier and more expensive than
simple microscopes because of the multiple lenses. The advantages of these
microscopes, due to the multiple lenses, are the reduced chromatic aberrations
and exchangeable objective lenses to adjust magnification.
shows a diagram of a compound microscope made from two convex lenses. The
first lens is called the objective lens and is closest to the object being observed.
The distance between the object and the objective lens is slightly longer than
the focal length, f0. The objective lens creates an enlarged image of the object,
which then acts as the object for the second lens. The second or ocular lens is
the eyepiece. The distance between the objective lens and the ocular lens is
slightly shorter than the focal length of the ocular lens, fe. This causes the
ocular lens to act as a magnifying glass to the first image and makes it even
larger. Because the final image is inverted, it is farther away from the
observer’s eye and thus much easier to view.
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Diagram of a Compound Microscope: This diagram shows the setup of mirrors
that allow for the magnification of images.
Since each lens produces a magnification that multiplies the height of the
image, the total magnification is a product of the individual magnifications. The
equation for calculating this is as follows:
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m=mome
where m is total magnification, mo is objective lens magnification, me is ocular

lens magnification.
The Telescope
The telescope aids in observation of remote objects by collecting

electromagnetic radiation, such as visible light.
Key Points
• Until the invention of silver-backed mirrors, refractive mirrors were the

standard for use in telescopes. This was because of the highly corrosive nature
of the metals used in older mirrors. Since then, reflective mirrors have replaced
refractive mirrors in astronomy.
• There are three main types of optical telescopes: refractive, reflective, and
catadioptric.
• Refractive telescopes, such as the one invented by Galileo, use an

objective lens and an eyepiece. The image is focused at the focal point and
allows the observer to see a brighter, larger image than they would with their
own eye.
• Reflective telescopes use curved mirrors that reflect light to form an

image. Sometimes a secondary mirror redirects the image to an eyepiece. Other
times the image is recorded by a sensor and observed on a computer screen.
• Catadioptric telescopes combine mirrors and lenses to form an image.

This system has a greater degree of error correction than other types of
telescopes. The combination of reflective and refractive elements allows for
each element to correct the errors made by the other.
Key Terms
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• Chromatic aberration: an optical aberration, in which an image has
colored fringes, caused by differential refraction of light of different wavelengths
• Spherical aberration: a type of lens aberration that causes blurriness,

particularly away from the center of the lens
• Achromatic: free from color; transmitting light without color-related

distortion
The telescope aids in observation of remote objects by collecting

electromagnetic radiation, such as x-rays, visible light, infrared, and
submillimeter rays. The first telescopes were invented in the Netherlands in the
1600s and used glass lenses. Shortly after, people began to build them using
mirrors and called them reflecting telescopes.
History
The first telescope was a refracting telescope made by spectacle makers in the
Netherlands in 1608. In 1610, Galileo made his own improved design. After the
refracting telescope was invented, people began to explore the idea of a
telescope that used mirrors. The potential advantages of using mirrors instead
of lenses were a reduction in spherical aberrations and the elimination of
chromatic aberrations. In 1668, Newton built the first practical reflecting
telescope. With the invention of achromatic lenses in 1733, color aberrations
were partially corrected, and shorter, more functional refracting telescopes
could be constructed. Reflecting telescopes were not practical because of the
highly corrosive metals used to make mirrors until the introduction of silver-
coated glass mirrors in 1857.
Types of Telescopes
Refracting Telescopes
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Schematic of Keplerian Refracting Telescope: All refracting telescopes use the
same principles. The combination of an objective lens 1 and some type of
eyepiece 2 is used to gather more light than the human eye is able to collect on
its own, focus it 5, and present the viewer with a brighter, clearer, and
magnified virtual image 6.
The figure above is a diagram of a refracting telescope. The objective lens (at
point 1) and the eyepiece (point 2) gather more light than a human eye can
collect by itself. The image is focused at point 5, and the observer is shown a
brighter, magnified virtual image at point 6. The objective lens refracts, or
bends, light. This causes the parallel rays to converge at a focal point, and
those that are not parallel converge on a focal plane.
Reflecting Telescopes
Reflecting telescopes, such as the one shown in, use either one or a
combination of curved mirrors that reflect light to form an image. They allow an
observer to view objects that have very large diameters and are the primary
type of telescope used in astronomy. The object being observed is reflected by a
curved primary mirror onto the focal plane. (The distance from the mirror to
the focal plane is called the focal length. ) A sensor could be located here to
record the image, or a secondary mirror could be added to redirect the light to
an eyepiece.
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Catadioptric Telescopes
Catadioptric telescopes, such as the one shown in, combine mirrors and lenses
to form an image. This system has a greater degree of error correction than
other types of telescopes. The combination of reflective and refractive elements
allows for each element to correct the errors made by the other.
X-Ray Diffraction
The principle of diffraction is applied to record interference on a subatomic

level in the study of x-ray crystallography.
Key Points
• Diffraction is what happens when waves encounter irregularities on a

surface or object and are caused to interfere with each other, either
constructively or destructively.
• The Bragg law pertains to applying the laws of diffraction to

crystallography in order to obtain precise images of the lattice structures in
atoms.
• The x-ray diffractometer is the machine used to scan the object by

shooting a wave at it and recording the interference it encounters.
• Most XRDs are equipped with a Soller slit, which acts like a polarizer for
the incident beam. It makes sure that the incident beam being recorded is
perfectly parallel to the object being analyzed.
• Constructive interference: Occurs when waves interfere with each other

crest to crest and the waves are exactly in phase with each other.
• Crystallography: The experimental science of determining the

arrangement of atoms in solids.
• destructive interference: Occurs when waves interfere with each other

crest to trough (peak to valley) and are exactly out of phase with each other.
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X-ray diffraction was discovered by Max von Laue, who won the Nobel Prize in
physics in 1914 for his mathematical evaluation of observed x-ray diffraction
patterns.
Diffraction is the irregularities caused when waves encounter an object. You

have most likely observed the effects of diffraction when looking at the bottom
of a CD or DVD. The rainbow pattern that appears is a result of the light being
interfered by the pits and lands on the disc that hold the data. shows this
effect. Diffraction can happen to any type of wave, not just visible light waves.
Bragg Diffraction
In x-ray crystallography, the term for diffraction is Bragg diffraction, which is

the scattering of waves from a crystalline structure. William Lawrence Bragg
formulated the equation for Bragg’s law, which relates wavelength to the angle
of incidence and lattice spacing. Refer to for a diagram of the following
equation: nλ=2dsin(θ)
• n – numeric constant known as the order of the diffracted beam
• λ – wavelength
• d – distance between lattice planes
• θ – angle of diffracted wave
The waves will experience either constructive interference or destructive

interference. Similarly, the x-ray beam that is diffracted off a crystal will have
some parts that have stronger energy, and others that lose energy. This
depends on the wavelength and the lattice spacing.
The X-ray Diffractometer
The XRD machine uses copper metal as the element for the x-ray source.
Diffraction patterns are recorded over an extended period of time, so it is very
important that the beam intensity remains constant. Film used to be used to
record the data, but that was inconvenient because it had to be replaced often.
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Now the XRD machines are equipped with semiconductor detectors. These XRD
machines record images in two ways, either continuous scans or step
scanning. In continuous scans, the detector moves in circular motions around
the object, while a beam of x-ray is constantly shot at the detector. Pulses of
energy are plotted with respect to diffraction angle. The step scan method is the
more popular method. It is much more efficient than continuous scans. In this
method, the detector collects data at a single fixed angle at a time. To ensure
that the incident beam is continuous, XRD machines are equipped with a
Soller slit. This acts like polarized sunglasses by organizing random x-ray
beams into a stack of neatly arranged waves parallel to the plane of the
detector.
X-Ray Imaging and CT Scans
Radiography uses x-rays to view material that cannot be seen by the human
eye by identifying areas of different density and composition.
Key Points
• Radiography uses x-rays to take pictures of materials with in an object

that can not be seen. They shoot x-ray beams through the object, and collect
the rays on film or a detector on the other side. Some of the rays are absorbed
into the denser materials, and this is how the image is produced.
• X-ray radiographs take images of all the materials within an object

superimposed on each other.
• The traditional, superimposed images can be helpful for a number of

applications, but CT scans enable the observer to see just the desired sections
of a material.
• Modern CT scans can even take all the slices, or layers, and arrange
them into a three-dimensional representation of the object.
Key Terms
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• radiography: The use of X-rays to view a non-uniformly composed
material such as the human body.
• tomography: Imaging by sections or sectioning.
• superimposed: Positioned on or above something else, especially in layers
Overview
X-ray imaging, or radiography, used x-rays to view material within the body
that cannot be seen by the human eye by identifying areas of different density
and composition. CT Scans use the assistance of a computer to take this
information, and generate 3 dimensional images.
X-ray Imaging
X-ray radiographs are produced by projecting a beam of X-rays toward an

object, in medical cases, a part of the human body. Depending on the physical
properties of the object (density and composition), some of the X-rays can be
partially absorbed. The portion of the rays that are not absorbed then pass
through the object and are recorded by either film or a detector, like in a
camera. This provides the observer with a 2 dimensional representation of all
the components of that object superimposed on each other, shows an image of
a human elbow.
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X-Ray Radiography: Radiography of the knee in a modern X-ray machine.
Tomography
Tomography refers to imaging by sections, or sectioning. demonstrates this

concept. The three-dimensional image is broken down into sections. (S1) shows
a section from the left and (S2) shows a section from the right.
CT Scans
CT scans, or computed tomography scans use a combination of X-ray

radiography and tomography to produce slices of areas of the human body.
Doctors can analyze the area, and based on the ability of the material to block
the X-ray beam, understand more about the material. shows a CT Scan of a
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human brain. Doctors can cross reference the images with known properties of
the same material and determine if there are any inconsistencies or problems.
Although generally these scans are shown as in, the information recorded can
be used to create a 3 dimensional image of the area, shows a three dimensional
image of a brain that was made by compiling CT Scans.
Specialty Microscopes and Contrast
Microscopes are instruments that let the human eye see objects that would
otherwise be too small.
Key Points
• For better resolution, it is important that there is a lot of contrast

between the image and the background.
• Microscopes are classified by what interacts with the object, such as light
or electrons. They are also classified by whether they take images by scanning
a little at a time or by taking images of the entire object at once.
• Some common types of specialty microscopes are scanning electron

micrscopes (SEM), transmission electron microscopes (TEM), both of which are
electron microscopes, and atomic force microscopes (ATM) which is a scanning
probe microscope.
• Contrast: A difference in lightness, brightness and/or hue between two

colors that makes them more or less distinguishable
Microscopes are instruments that let the human eye see objects that would
otherwise be too small. There are many types of microscopes: optical
microscopes, transmission electron microscopes, scanning electron
microscopes and scanning probe microscopes.
Classes of Microscopes
One way to group microscopes is based on how the image is generated through
the microscope. Here are three ways we can classify microscopes:
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1. Light or Photon – optical microscopes
2. Electrons – electron microscopes
3. Probe – scanning probe microscopes.
Microscopes can also be classified based on whether they analyze the sample
by scanning a point at a time (scanning electron microscopes), or by analyzing
the entire sample at once (transmission electron microscopes).
Types of Microscopes
• In optical microscopes, the better the contrast between the image and
the surface it is being viewed on, the better the resolution will be to the viewer.
There are many illumination techniques to generate improved contrast. These
techniques include “dark field” and “bright field.” With the dark field technique
the light is scattered by the object and the image appears to the observer on a
dark background. With the bright field technique the object is illuminated from
below to increase the contrast in the image seen by viewers.
• Transmission Electron Microscope: The TEM passes electrons through

the sample, and allows people to see objects that are normally not seen by the
naked eye. A beam of electrons is transmitted through an ultra thin specimen,
interacting with the specimen as it passes through. This interaction forms an
image that is magnified and focused onto an imaging device.
• Scanning Electron Microscopes: Referred to as SEM, these microscopes

look at the surface of objects by scanning them with a fine electron beam. The
electron beam of the microscope interacts with the electrons in the sample and
produces signals that can be detected and have information about the
topography and composition.
• Atomic Force Microscopy: The AFM is a scanning probe type of

microscopy with very high resolution and is one of the foremost tools for
imaging at the nanoscale. The mechanical probe feels the surface with a
cantilever with a sharp tip. The deflection of the tip is then measured using a
laser spot that is reflected from the surface of the cantilever.
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Limits of Resolution and Circular Apertures’
In optical imaging, there is a fundamental limit to the resolution of any optical

system that is due to diffraction.
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Key Points
• Since effects of diffraction become most prominent for waves whose

wavelength is roughly similar to the dimensions of the diffracting objects, the
wavelength of the imaging beam sets a fundamental limit on the resolution of
any optical system.
• The Abbe diffraction limit for a microscope is given as d=λ2(nsinθ)
• Since the diffraction limit is proportional to wavelength, to increase the

resolution, shorter wavelengths can be used such as UV and X-ray
microscopes.
Key Terms
• Diffraction: The bending of a wave around the edges of an opening or an

obstacle.
• Nanostructure: Any manufactured structure having a scale between

molecular and microscopic.
• Aperture: The diameter of the aperture that restricts the width of the
light path through the whole system. For a telescope, this is the diameter of the
objective lens (e.g., a telescope may have a 100 cm aperture).
The resolution of an optical imaging system (e.g., a microscope, telescope, or

camera) can be limited by factors such as imperfections in the lenses or
misalignment. However, there is a fundamental maximum to the resolution of
any optical system that is due to diffraction (a wave nature of light). An optical
system with the ability to produce images with angular resolution as good as
the instrument’s theoretical limit is said to be diffraction limited.
For telescopes with circular apertures, the size of the smallest feature in an
image that is diffraction limited is the size of the Airy disc, as shown in. As one
decreases the size of the aperture in a lens, diffraction increases and the ring
features from diffraction become more prominent. Similarly, when imaged
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objects get smaller, features from diffraction begin to blur the boundary of the
object. Since effects of diffraction become most prominent for waves whose
wavelength is roughly similar to the dimensions of the diffracting objects, the
wavelength of the imaging beam sets a fundamental limit on the resolution of
any optical system.
Airy Disk: Computer-generated image of an Airy disk. The gray scale intensities
have been adjusted to enhance the brightness of the outer rings of the Airy
pattern.
The Abbe Diffraction Limit for a Microscope
The observation of sub-wavelength structures with microscopes is difficult

because of the Abbe diffraction limit. In 1873, Ernst Abbe found that light, with
wavelength λ, traveling in a medium with refractive index n, cannot be
converged to a spot with a radius less than:
d=λ2(nsinθ)
The denominator nsinθ
is called the numerical aperture and can reach about 1.4 in modern optics,
hence the Abbe limit is roughly d=λ/2. With green light around 500 nm, the
Abbe limit is 250 nm which is large compared to most nanostructures, or
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biological cells with sizes on the order of 1μm and internal organelles which are
much smaller. Using a 500 nm beam, you cannot (in principle) resolve any
features with size less than around 250 nm.
Improving Resolution
To increase the resolution, shorter wavelengths can be used such as UV and X-

ray microscopes. These techniques offer better resolution but are expensive,
suffer from lack of contrast in biological samples and may damage the sample.
There are techniques for producing images that appear to have higher
resolution than allowed by simple use of diffraction-limited optics. Although
these techniques improve some aspect of resolution, they generally involve an
enormous increase in cost and complexity. Usually the technique is only
appropriate for a small subset of imaging problems.
Aberrations
An aberration, or distortion, is a failure of rays to converge at one focus

because of limitations or defects in a lens or mirror.
Key Points
• There are many types of aberrations, including chromatic, spherical,

comatic, astigmatism, and barrel distortion.
• Chromatic aberrations occur due to the fact that lenses have different
refractive indexes for different wavelengths, and therefore colors. These
aberrations occur right on the edges of images between light and dark areas of
the picture.
• Mirrors do not have chromatic aberrations because they do not rely on

the index of refraction, but rather the index of reflection, which is independent
of wavelength.
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• Comatic aberrations are due to imperfections in lenses and cause the
point source to be off-center. This can cause images to appear pear-shaped, or
cause images to have tails, as with comets.
Key Terms
• Distortion: (optics) an aberration that causes magnification to change

over the field of view.
• Refraction: Changing of a light ray’s direction when it passes through

variations in matter.
• Aberration: The convergence to different foci, by a lens or mirror, of rays

of light emanating from one and the same point, or the deviation of such rays
from a single focus; a defect in a focusing mechanism that prevents the
intended focal point.
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The Basics of Aberrations
An aberration is the failure of rays to converge at one focus because of

limitations or defects in a lens or mirror. Basically, an aberration is a distortion
of an image due to the fact that lenses will never behave exactly according to
the way they were modeled. Types of aberrations vary due to the size, material
composition, or thickness of a lens, or the position of an object.
Chromatic Aberration
A chromatic aberration, also called achromatism or chromatic distortion, is a

distortion of colors. This aberration happens when the lens fails to focus all the
colors on the same convergence point. This happens because lenses have a
different index of refraction for different wavelengths of light. The refractive
index decreases with increasing wavelength. These aberrations or distortions
occur on the edges of color boundaries between bright and dark areas of an
image. Since the index of refraction of lenses depends on color or wavelength,
images are produced at different places and with different magnifications for
different colors. shows chromatic aberration for a single convex lens. Since
violet rays have a higher refractive index than red, they are bent more and
focused closed to the lens, shows a two-lens system using a diverging lens to
partially correct for this, but it is nearly impossible to do so completely.
The law of reflection is independent of wavelength, and therefore mirrors do not

have this problem. This is why it is advantageous to use mirrors in telescopes
and other optical systems.
Comatic Aberration
A comatic aberration, or coma, occurs when the object is off-center. Different

parts of a lens of a mirror do not refract or reflect the image to the same point,
as shown in. They can also be result of an imperfection in the lens or other
component and result in off- axis point sources. These aberrations can cause
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objects to appear pear-shaped. They can also cause stars to appear distorted or
appear to have tails, as with comets.
Other Aberrations
Spherical aberrations are a form of aberration where rays converging from the
outer edges of a lens converge to a focus closer to the lens, and rays closer to
the axis focus further. Astigmatisms are also a form of aberration in the lenses
of the eyes where rays that propagate in two perpendicular planes have
different foci. This can eventually cause a monochromatic image to distort
vertically or horizontally. Another aberration or distortion is a barrel distortion
where image magnification decreases with the distance from the optical axis.
The apparent effect is that of an image which has been mapped around a
sphere, like in a fisheye lens.
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UNIT 30: ELECTRICITY AND ELECTROMAGNETISM
Unit Objectives
1. Define the term magnetism
2. Explain on the magnetization and demagnetization
3. Describe current electricity and electromagnetism
4. State the application of electromagnetism
5. Discuss AC and DC theory and electrochemistry
30.1 MAGNETISM
• Magnetism is one aspect of the combined electromagnetic force.
• It refers to physical phenomena arising from the force caused by

magnets, objects that produce fields that attract or repel other objects.
• Magnets have two poles called North and South.
• Similar (like) magnetic poles repel. Unlike magnetic poles attract. A

magnet attracts a piece of iron. The most important of the two properties of
attraction and repulsion is repulsion. The only way to tell if an object is
magnetized is to see if it repels another magnetized object.
• The strength and direction of a magnetic field is represented by magnetic

field lines. Field lines by convention go from North to South. A magnetic field is
three-dimensional, although this is not often seen on a drawing of magnetic
field lines.
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Magnetic fields
A magnet creates a magnetic field around it. You cannot see a magnetic field,
but you can observe its effects. A force is exerted on a magnetic material
brought into a magnetic field. The force is a non-contact force because the
magnet and the material do not have to touch each other
• The field lines come out of the north pole and go into the south pole
• The field lines are more concentrated at the poles
The magnetic field is strongest at the poles, where the field lines are most
concentrated.
Field lines also show what happens to the magnetic fields of two magnets
during attraction or repulsion.
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Field lines do not lead from one magnet to the other when the magnets repel
each other
30.2 MAGNETIZATION AND DEMAGNETIZATION

Magnetization
The method of developing the properties of a magnet in a magnetic substance

is known as magnetization. A magnetic substance like a piece of iron can be
magnetized by electric current or by touching with a magnet. We know about
the method of preparing an electromagnet and now we will discuss about the
method of preparing a magnet by direct contact.
When an electric current flows in a wire, it creates a magnetic field around the
wire. This effect can be used to make an electromagnet. A simple electromagnet
comprises a length of wire turned into a coil and connected to a battery or
power supply.
Demagnetization
The method of removing of the magnetic properties of a magnet is known as

demagnetization. It can be done by the following methods:
1. Hitting a magnet heavily by hammer.
2. Heating a magnet at high temperature.
3. Placing two magnets with same poles facing each other.
30.3 CURRENT ELECTRICITY

If the two requirements of an electric circuit are met, then charge will flow
through the external circuit. It is said that there is a current - a flow of charge.
Using the word current in this context is to simply use it to say that something
is happening in the wires - charge is moving. Yet current is a physical quantity
that can be measured and expressed numerically. As a physical quantity,
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current is the rate at which charge flows past a point on a circuit. As depicted
in the diagram below, the current in a circuit can be determined if the quantity
of charge Q passing through a cross section of a wire in a time t can be
measured. The current is simply the ratio of the quantity of charge and time.
The magnetic field of an electromagnet
The magnetic field around an electromagnet is just the same as the one around
a bar magnet. It can, however, be reversed by reversing the current (turning
the battery around).
30.4 APPLICATION OF ELECTROMAGNETISM

Household appliances
Electromagnetism serves as a basic principle of working for many of the home

appliances in household applications. These applications include lighting,
kitchen appliances, air conditioning systems, etc.
• The most dominant use of power in homes as well as commercial

buildings is lighting systems. These lighting systems used numerous
fluorescent lighting fixtures. Ballasts used in the fluorescent lamps use
electromagnetism principle so that at the time of turn ON of the light it
produces a high voltage.
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Industrial Applications
Almost all of the instruments or devices used in industries are based on the
electromagnetism. Materials used in constructing such devices include iron,
cobalt, nickel, etc which naturally responds to the magnetic fields.
Starting from small control instruments to the large power equipments, the
electromagnetism is used at least at one stage of their working.
• Generators and motors dominate in most of the industries which are the
primary power source and driving systems respectively. Generators convert the
mechanical to electrical energy whereas the motors convert electrical energy to
mechanical energy.
• Generators supply the electrical energy in the time of mains power

interruption and most of the cases, these are driven by the IC engines. There
are different classes of motors which are employed in industries. These are
used for cranes, hoists, lifts, conveyor
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Magnetic Levitation Trains
This is the modern technology of transportation systems that use the concept
of electromagnetism. These are called as high speed trains which use powerful
electromagnets to develop the speed.
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Communication System
It is the process of transmitting information from a source to a receiver. This
transmission of energy over long distances is carried out through
electromagnetic waves at high frequencies. These waves are also called as
microwaves or high frequency radio waves.
Suppose in case of mobile phones, sound energy is converted into
electromagnetic energy. By using radio transmitters, this electromagnetic
energy is transferred to the receiver. At the receiver these electromagnetic
waves are again transformed back into sound energy.
Medical System
Nowadays electromagnetic fields play a key role in advanced medical

equipments such as hyperthermia treatments for cancer, implants and
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).
RF range frequencies are mostly used in medical applications. In MRI scans,

sophisticated equipment works based on the electromagnetism can scan
minute details of the human body.
30.5 AC THEORY
Alternating current (AC) is an electric current which periodically reverses
direction, in contrast to direct current (DC) which flows only in one direction.
These currents typically alternate at higher frequencies than those used in
power transmission.
30.6 DC THEORY
The fundamental relationship between voltage, current and resistance in an
electrical or electronic circuit is called Ohm’s Law. A constant voltage source is
called a DC Voltage with a voltage that varies periodically with time is called an
AC voltage
30.7 ELECTROCHEMISTRY
Electrochemistry is the study of chemical processes that cause electrons to
move. This movement of electrons is called electricity, which can be generated
by movements of electrons from one element to another in a reaction known as
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an oxidation-reduction ("redox") reaction. A redox reaction is a reaction that
involves a change in oxidation state of one or more elements. When a
substance loses an electron, its oxidation state increases; thus, it is oxidized.
When a substance gains an electron, its oxidation state decreases, thus being
reduced. For example, for the redox reaction
Oxidation is the loss of electrons, whereas reduction refers to the acquisition of

electrons, as illustrated in the respective reactions above. The species being
oxidized is also known as the reducing agent or reductant, and the species
being reduced is called the oxidizing agent or oxidant. In this case, H2 is being
oxidized (and is the reducing agent), while F2 is being reduced (and is the
oxidizing agent).
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UNIT 31: CHARGED PARTICLES
Unit Objectives
By the end of the, unit, the learner should be able to:

1. Identify electric field on charged particles and thermionic emissions
2. State the use of C.R.O and photoelectric effects
3. Explain the production of X-rays and radioactivity
31.1 ELECTRIC FIELD ON CHARGED PARTICLES

An electric field is a region where a charged particle (such as an electron or
proton) experiences a force (an electrical force) without being touched.
If the charged particle is free to move, it will accelerate in the direction of the
unbalanced force.
+
+ -
+ -
+ -
To represent an electric field, we draw electric field lines.
+ -
+
+ -
The arrow heads show the direction in which a positively + -
+ -
charged particle (such as a proton) would accelerate if it
was placed in the electric field.
A negatively charged particle (such as an electron) would accelerate in the
opposite direction to the arrow heads
31.2 THERMIONIC EMISSIONS

The process by which free electrons are emitted from the surface of a metal
when external heat energy is applied is called thermionic emission.
Thermionic emission occurs in metals that are heated to a very high

temperature. In other words, thermionic emission occurs, when large amount
of external energy in the form of heat is supplied to the free electrons in the
metals.
31.3 USE OF C.R.O
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 Measure short time interval: A CRO can be used to measure time interval
between the pulses in a signal which are displayed on the screen. By
counting the units of separation of the pulses and multiplying it with the set
time/div reading of the knob, one can precisely state the time interval.
 Measure potential difference (as a voltmeter): A CRO provides infinite

(practically very high) input impedance just a usual voltmeter while
measuring the potential difference. The only difference between them is that
the CRO utilizes its screen to display the nature of the voltage being
measured, which enables the user to observe the characteristics of the
signal.
 Current measurement: Voltage measurements can be used to calculate

current flow through a device or through any portion of a circuit. From
Ohm’s Law:
 Examination of Waveform: Once, the corresponding signal has been

measured and displayed, it can be analyzed to obtain its various parameters
such as peak-peak voltage, this period etc.
 Measurement of phase: When sine-wave signals of different frequencies are

input to the horizontal and vertical amplifiers a stationary pattern is formed
on the CRT when the ratio of the two frequencies is an intergral fraction
such as 1/2, 2/3, 4/3, 1/5, etc. These stationary patterns are known
as Lissajous figures and can be used for comparison measurement of
frequencies.
 Measurement of frequency: Frequency can be calculated by simply taking

the inverse of the time period of the signal obtained
31.4 PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECTS

Under the right circumstances light can be used to push electrons, freeing
them from the surface of a solid. This process is called the photoelectric
effect (or photoelectric emission or photoemission), a material that can exhibit
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this phenomena is said to be photoemissive, and the ejected electrons are
called photoelectrons; but there is nothing that would distinguish them from
other electrons.
31.5 PRODUCTION OF X-RAYS

X-rays are produced due to sudden deceleration of fast-moving electrons when
they collide and interact with the target anode. In this process of deceleration,
more than 99% of the electron energy is converted into heat and less than 1%
of energy is converted into x-rays.
31.6 RADIOACTIVITY
As its name implies, radioactivity is the act of emitting radiation
spontaneously. This is done by an atomic nucleus that, for some reason, is
unstable; it "wants" to give up some energy in order to shift to a more stable
configuration. Radioactivity is a physical, not a biological, phenomenon.
Simply stated, the radioactivity of a sample can be measured by counting how
many atoms are spontaneously decaying each second.
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References/Further Readings
1. Applied physical science-Hewitt, Suchocki(2002),conceptual physical
science Exploration, Boston, Massachusetts, Addison Wesley. -Kenya
secondary education physical text book
2. Duncan, T. (1983). Physics for Today and Tomorrow. London
3. Fundamentals of physics extended 10th edition Halliday & Resnik
4. Hewitt, P., Suchocki, J., & Hewitt, L. A. (2002). Conceptual Physical
Science, Explorations: Next Time Questions. Benjamin-Cummings
Publishing Company.
5. M. Nelson and P. Parker (1970). Advanced Level Physics, 3rd Edition.
London: Heinemann Educational Books.
6. OpenStax College (2012). College Physics. Houston: Rice University.
7. Organic Chemistry As a Second Language by David Klein
8. Organic Chemistry: Structure and Function: 1203 pages, 4th edition by K.
Peter C. Vollhardt, Neil E. Schore, Hardcover W. H. Freeman
9. Schaffer, Frank, Physical Science for Everyday, Torrance, CA; Frank
Schaffer Publication, 1997 Sneider, Cary I., Gould. Alan, Hawthorne,
Cheryll, Color Analyzers, Berkeley, CA, GEMS, Lawrence Hall of Science,
1996
10. Taylor, B. A., Poth, J., & Portman, D. J. (1995). Teaching
physics with toys: activities for grades K-9. Learning Triangle
Press.
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APPLIED PHYSICAL SCIENCE

1. Demonstrate understanding of the basic principles of physical science

Module learning strategies

Module learning logistics/resources

1.2 ATOMIC STRUCTURE

Every atom is made of a nucleus consisting of protons and neutrons. The

Atomic Number (Z) The # of protons

Comparing the charge and mass of electrons, protons and neutrons

1.3 ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION

Electron configuration diagram for lithium

Electronic structures of elements

Element Numeric Electrons Periodic

Ca Calcium atoms 1have 20 electrons. Group 2

1.4 ATOMIC SPECTRA

By the end of this unit, the learner should be able to;

1. Explain the trends in the periodic table

2.1 INTRODUCTION TO PERIODIC PROPERTIES

2.2 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ELEMENTS

By the end of this unit, the learner should be able to:

1. List the types of bonds

3.1 INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURE AND BONDING

3.2 TYPES OF BONDS

3.3 VANDERWAALS FORCES

By the end of the unit, the learner should be able to:

1. Write chemical formulae of various compounds

4.1 WRITING CHEMICAL FORMULAE OF COMPOUNDS

4.2 BALANCING CHEMICAL EQUATIONS

Start by assigning generic coefficients i.e.

Importance of a balanced chemical equation

*sample questions in your books*

By the end of the unit, the learner should be able to:

1. Define various terms as relates to redox reaction

5.1 DEFINITION OF TERMS

Ex – 2K (s) + Br2 (g)  2KBr (s)

Oxidizing agent – substance that oxidizes another substance

Rules of assigning oxidation numbers

The 7 diatomic elements

3. to determine if a reaction is a redox reaction

*Complete the balancing by inspection.

Reduction is the gain of electrons.

By the end of the unit, the learner should be able to:

1. List the classes of organic compounds and the characteristics of carbon

6.1 CLASSES OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

 Determine the principle functional group and its position.

6.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF CARBON

The empirical formula of a compound is defined as the formula that shows the

6.3 CALCULATION OF MOLECULAR FORMULA FROM EMPIRICAL FORMULA

Round to the nearest integer to get the empirical formula as C4H5N2O

So the molecular formula for caffeine is (C4H5N2O) 2= C8H10N4O2

7.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF A HOMOLOGOUS SERIES

7.3 STRUCTURE AND BONDING OF FUNCTIONAL GROUPS

7.4 TYPES OF ISOMERISM

Butane ------ Methylpropane

8.1 DEFINITION OF TERMS

8.2 TYPES OF HYDROCARBONS

2. Alkenes- with general formula CnH(2n). These contain atleast 1 double

1.3 nomenclature of hydrocarbons

The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) has

1. Straight-chain hydrocarbon molecules that contain only singly-bonded

3. Straight-chain hydrocarbon molecules that contain at least one triply-

4. Prefixes are attached to the last syllable to indicate the number of

meth eth prop but pent hex

hept oct non dec undec dodec

5. Alkenes and alkynes with hydrocarbon chain lengths of four or greater

sample questions in your books