SOFT AND HARD

MAGNETIC MATERIALS

SUBMITTED BY :
102117008, 102117049, 102117050 , 102117013
Introduction:
  Intensity of magnetization (M) : It represents the extent to which a specimen is
magnetised when placed in a magnetising field.

M = Magnetic moment/volume = μM / V
 
 Magnetic Susceptibility : Magnetic susceptibility can be simply defined as the
measurement of the extent to which a substance can be magnetised by applying a
peripheral magnetic field. It is denoted by χ .
χ = M/H

  Relative Permeability (µr): Relative permeability, denoted by the symbol , is the

ratio of the permeability of a specific medium to the permeability of free space µ0.
Introduction:
  Magnetic flux density (B) : The flux density is the number of magnetic lines of
flux that pass through a certain point on a surface. The SI unit is T (tesla), which is
weber per square metre (Wb/m2) and the unit in the CGS system is G (gauss). 1
tesla is equivalent to 10,000 gauss. Magnetic flux density is usually represented in
formulas with the symbol

 
 Magnetic Domain : A magnetic domain is a region within a magnetic material in
which the magnetization is in a uniform direction. In ferromagnetic materials,
smaller groups of atoms band together into areas called domains, in which all the
electrons have the same magnetic orientation. 
Ferromagnetic Materials

 The ferromagnetic materials are those substances which exhibit strong magnetism in the
same direction of the field, when a magnetic field is applied to it.
Properties of Ferromagnetic Materials

 In ferromagnetic materials, the magnetic lines of forces due to the applied magnetic field are
strongly attracted towards the material.
 All ferromagnetic materials become paramagnetic above a temperature called Curie
temperature Tc
 Permeability is greater than 1.
 Magnetic susceptibility is large and positive.
 Magnetic susceptibility decreases with the rise in temperature according to Curie-Weiss law.
 Ferromagnetism is the  property of a material to be strongly attracted to a magnetic field and
to become a powerful magnet.
 The source of ferromagnetism is the spin of the electrons.
Hysteresis Loop

 This loop is formed by changing the magnetizing force at the same time as measuring the
magnetic flux of the material.
 For understanding it, we will consider a ferromagnetic rod. It is placed in a solenoid and
the current is given.
 We can see that when the current is increased, at first numerous domains line up with the
field.
 On the dipoles of the domains which are not aligned, a torque is developed.
 When the majority dipoles line up with the field, then there is no more increase in M. Thus
saturation is reached
Hysteresis Loop

Now, if the current is cut back to zero, the magnetization does not track the original curve.
That is it lags behind the original curve. This is called hysteresis. The loop obtained as b-c-e-f-
b is the hysteresis loop. It is shown below.

a-b → Initial magnetization, saturation at b

b-c → Demagnetization but M not equal to 0, when I

=0

c-d → Reversal of current direction, M not equal to

0 at d, some negative I

d-e → Saturation with all dipoles in reverse direction

At c and f, rod has permanent magnetization with I =

0.
Hysteresis Loop

Here; for understanding, we have plot the hysteresis curve as I verses M. But normally, it is a
curve obtained by plotting B verses H. It is shown below.
Ferromagnetic Materials

 Ferromagnetic materials are basically divided into two broad classes: Soft magnetic
materials and hard magnetic materials.

 The area under the hysteresis loops mainly help to quantify them as hard or soft magnetic
materials.
Soft Magnetic Material

 Soft magnetic materials are those materials that are easily magnetised and demagnetised.
 They typically have intrinsic coercivity less than 1000 Am -1.
 They are used primarily to enhance and/or channel the flux produced by an electric
current. 
 The main parameter, often used as a figure of merit for soft magnetic materials, is the
relative permeability ( mr, where mr = B/moH), which is a measure of how readily the
material responds to the applied magnetic field.
  The other main parameters of interest are the coercivity, the saturation magnetisation and
the electrical conductivity.
Soft Magnetic Material
 For soft magnetic materials, the hyteresis loop will be of small area. So, hysteresis loss is
minimum.
Properties of Soft Magnetic Materials

 Utmost permeability.
 Slight coercive force.
 Small hysteresis loss.
 Small remanent induction.
 High saturation magnetisation
Some Significant Soft Magnetic Material and
their applications
Pure Iron :
 Pure iron contain a very minute carbon content (> 0.1%).
 This material can be refined to get the utmost permeability and less coercive force with the
help of suitable technique to make it a soft magnetic material.
 But it produces eddy current loss when subjected to very high flux density due to low
resistivity.
 So, it is used in low frequency application such as components for electrical instruments
and core in electromagnet.
Some Significant Soft Magnetic Material and
their applications
Silicon Iron Alloys :
 This material is most commonly used soft magnetic material.
 The addition of silicon will make increase in permeability, low eddy current loss due to
increase in resistivity, low hysteresis loss.
 They are used in electrical rotating machine, electromagnet, electrical machine and
transformer.
Nickel Iron Alloys (Hypernik) :
 It is used in communication equipment such as audio transformer, recording heads and
magnetic modulators because of high initial permeability in feeble fields.
 They also possess low hysteresis and eddy current losses.
Some Significant Soft Magnetic Material and
their applications
 Grain oriented sheet steel: used to make transformer cores.
 Mu-metal: used in miniature transformers meant for circuit applications.
 Ceramic magnets: used for making memory devices for microwave devices and
computer.
Hard magnetic materials:

 These are materials that retain their magnetic state even when the excitation has been
removed.
 Hard magnets, also referred to as permanent magnets, are magnetic materials that retain
their magnetism after being magnetised.
 Practically, this means materials that have an intrinsic coercivity of greater than ~10kAm-
1.
 Common nails are magnetically soft because they don’t stay magnetized.
 Masonry nails and screw drivers are magnetically hard.
Properties of Hard magnetic materials:

 High retentivity and coercivity.

 Value of energy product (BH) will be large.
 The shape of BH loop is nearly rectangle.
 High hysteresis loop.
 Small initial permeability.
 High curie point or temperature
 High magnetic saturation
Properties of Hard magnetic materials:
Hysteresis Loop
 The total area of the hysteresis loop = the energy which is dissipated when a material of
unit volume is magnetized during a cycle of operation.
 The B-H curve or hysteresis loop of the hard magnetic materials will be always having
large area because of large coercive force as shown in figure below.
Some Significant Hard Magnetic Material and
their applications
Steel :
 The carbon steel have large hysteresis loop.
 Due to any shock or vibration, they lose their magnetic properties rapidly.
 But tungsten steel, chromium steel and cobalt steel have high energy product.
Alnico :
 It is made up of aluminium, nickel and cobalt to boost to improve the magnetic properties.
 Alnico 5 is the most important material used to create permanent magnet. The BH product
is 36000 Jm-3.
 It is used in high temperature operation.
Some Significant Hard Magnetic Material and
their applications
Rare-Earth Alloys :
 SmCo5, Sm2Co17, NdFeB etc.
Hard Ferrites or Ceramic magnets (like Barium Ferrites):
 These materials can be powdered and used as a binder in plastics.
 The plastics made by this method are called plastic magnet.
Bonded Magnets:
 It is used in DC motors, Stepper motors etc.
Nanocrystalline hard magnet (Nd-Fe-B Alloys):
 The small size and weight of these material make it to use in medical devices, thin motors
etc.
Applications of Hard Magnetic Materials:

Hard magnetic materials have wide range of applications. They are as follows:

 Automotive: motor drives for fans, wipers, injection pumps; starter motors; Control for
seats, windows etc.
 Telecommunication: Microphones, Loud Speakers, Telephone Ringers etc.
 Data processing: Printers, Stepping Motors, Disc Drives and Actuators.
 Consumer electronics: Home computers, Clocks, DC Motors for showers etc.
 Electronic and instrumentation: Energy Meter Disc, Sensors, Dampers etc.
 Industrial: Lifting apparatus, Robotics, Meters etc.
 Astro and aerospace: Auto-compass, Couplings, Instrumentation etc.
 Biosurgical: NMR/MRI body scanner, Wound Closures etc.
Differences between
Hard and Soft Magnetic Materials
Hard Magnetic Materials
Materials which retain their magnetism and
are difficult to demagnetize are called hard
magnetic materials.
These materials retain their magnetism even
after the removal of the applied magnetic
field. Hence these materials are used for
making permanent magnets. In permanent
magnets the movement of the domain wall is
prevented. They are prepared by heating the
magnetic materials to the required
temperature and then quenching them.
Impurities increase the strength of hard
magnetic materials.
Soft Magnetic Materials
Soft magnetic materials are easy to magnetize
and demagnetize.
These materials are used for making
temporary magnets. The domain wall
movement is easy. Hence they are easy to
magnetize. By annealing the cold worked
material, the dislocation density is reduced
and the domain wall movement is made
easier. Soft magnetic materials should not
possess any void and its structure should be
homogeneous so that the materials are not
affected by impurities.
Differences between
Hard and Soft Magnetic Materials
Hard Magnetic Materials
They have large hysteresis loss due to large
hysteresis loop area.
Susceptibility and permeability are low.
Coercivity and retentivity values are large.
Magnetic energy stored is high.
They possess high value of BH product.
The eddy current loss is high.
Soft Magnetic Materials
They have low hysteresis loss due to small
hysteresis area.
Susceptibility and permeability are high.
Coercivity and retentivity values are less.
Since they have low retentivity and coercivity,
they are not used for making permanent
magnets.
Magnetic energy stored is less.
The eddy current loss is less because of high
resistivity.