Module 1.

1 Classification of Mateials
Learning Outcomes: The Leraner will be able to
 Explain the need of Materials and Metallurgy
 Classify materials based on their properties
 Identify various materials as metals, polymers, ceramics and composites

Introduction
The materials play very important role in engineering design, analysis and manufacturing. The
proper selection of material to meet certain design consideration is the challenge for the mechanical
engineering. The quality of the engineering product is not only depending on the good design, but
also on the type of material used. Thehe engineer cannot deny the importance of materials and their
processing technique. Therefore, background of conventional engineering materials and advanced
materials, their processing and the mechanical behaviour of these materials is must for the
mechanical engineers.

Materials Science and Engineering

Materials science: basic knowledge about the internal structure, properties and processing of
materials.
Materials engineering: : fundamental knowledge applied to materials in order to transform
them into useful products required by the society

Fig 1.1 Relation between Structure Properties Process and Preformance

Structure:

 At the atomic level: arrangement of atoms in different ways. (Gives different properties for
graphite than diamond both forms of carbon.)
 At the microscopic level: arrangement of small grains of material that can be identified by
microscopy. (Gives different optical properties to transparent vs. frosted glass.)
Properties are the way the material responds to the environment. For instance, the mechanical,
electrical and magnetic properties are the responses to mechanical, electrical and magnetic forces,
respectively. Other important properties are thermal (transmission of heat, heat capacity), optical
(absorption, transmission and scattering of light), and the chemical stability in contact with the
environment (like corrosion resistance).
Processing of materials is the application of heat (heat treatment), mechanical forces, etc. to affect
their microstructure and, therefore, their properties.

Need of Material Technology

 To select a material for a given use based on consideration of cost and performance.
The classic example involves strength and ductility; normally, a material having a high
strength will have only a limited ductility. In such cases a reasonable compromise between
two or more properties may be necessary

 To understand the limits of materials and the change of their properties with use
For example, significant reductions in mechanical strength may result from exposure to
elevated temperatures or corrosive environments.
 To able to create a new material that will have some desirable properties.
 To able to use the material for different applications.

Classification of Materials

1. Metals and Metal alloys

Materials in this group are composed of one or more metallic elements (such as iron, aluminum,
copper, titanium, gold, and nickel), and often also nonmetallic elements (for example, carbon,
nitrogen, and oxygen) in relatively small amounts.

Fig 1.2 Examples of Metals and its Alloys

Metals are known from their metallic bond in atoms. It is the atomic bonding mechanism in pure
metals and metal alloys.

Fig 1.3 Metallic Bonds-* Sharing atoms within themselves. Between Al atoms
 The metallic bonding involves the sharing of outer shell electrons by all atoms to form a
general electron cloud that permeates the entire block. This cloud provides the attractive
forces to hold the atoms together and form a strong, rigid structure in most cases. Because of
the general sharing of electrons and their freedom to move within the metal, metallic
bonding provides typical properties of materials characterized such as good electrical
conductivity, good conduction of heat and good ductility, good workability.

2. Ceramics
Ceramics are compounds between metallic and nonmetallic elements; they are most frequently
oxides, nitrides, and carbides. For e xample, aluminum oxide (or alumina, Al2O3 ), silicon dioxide
(or silica, SiO2 ), silicon carbide (SiC), silicon nitride (Si3N4 ), and, in addition, traditional
ceramics—those composed of clay minerals (i.e., porcelain), as well as cement, and glass.
-Ceramics are composed of at least two elements, and often more, their crystal structures are
generally more complex than those for metals. The atomic bonding in these materials ranges from
purely ionic to totally covalent; many ceramics exhibit a combination of these two bonding types.
-The degree of ionic character being dependent on the electronegativities of the atoms.
the first characteristic, the crystal must be electrically neutral; that is, all the cation positive
charges must be balanced by an equal number of anion negative charges.The chemical formula of a
compound indicates the ratio of cations to anions, or the composition that achieves this charge
balance.

Fig 1.4 Ionoc Bonds- Give and Take system

-The second criterion involves the sizes or ionic radii of the cations and anions, and respectively.
Because the metallic elements give up electrons when ionized, cations are ordinarily smaller than
anions, and, consequently, the ratio is less than unity.
- Crystalline compound between metallic and non-metallic, non Characterised by either ionic or
covalent bond
-These are further characterized by high hardness, abrasion resistance, brittleness and chemical
inertness

Fig 1.5 Examples of Ceramics

-Ceramics are typically insulative to the passage of electricity and heat and are more resistance to high
temperatures and harsh environments than metals and polymers
- With respect to mechanical behaviour, these are brittle in nature

3. Polymers
Principally based on chain of carbon atoms joined by covalent bond.Many of them are organic
compounds that are chemically based on carbon, hydrogen, and other nonmetallic elements (viz. O,
N, and Si). Furthermore, they have very large molecular structures, often chain-like in nature that
have a backbone of carbon atoms. Some of the common and familiar polymers are polyethylene
(PE), nylon, poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC), polycarbonate (PC), polystyrene (PS), and silicone rubber.

Fig 1.6 Covalent Bond- Sharing with others

 Types of Polymers:
Thermoplastics : Thermoplastics soften when heated (and eventually liquefy) and harden when
cooled—processes that are totally reversible and may be repeated.
Thermoset : Thermosetting polymers are network polymers. They become permanently hard during
their formation, and do not soften upon heating.
Elaostemers : elongated to twice its length, retain its original dimension.

Fig 1.7 Examples of Polymers

 Properties of Polymers:
1. Electrical insulation
All polymeric materials exhibit good electrical insulation properties. However, their usefulness in
this field is limited by their low heat resistance and their softness
2. Strength to weight ratio
Polymeric materials vary in strength considerably. Some of the stringer, such as nylon, compare
favourably with the weaker metals. All polymeric materials are much lighter than any of the metals
used for engineering purposes.
3. Corrosion resistance
Inert to the most inorganic chemical and can be used in environments which are hostile even to the
most corrosion resistant metals
The synthetic rubbers, which are a product of polymer chemistry, are superior to natural
(polyisoprene) since they are not attacked by oils and greases.

4. Composites
A composite is composed of two (or more) individual materials, which come from the categories
discussed above—viz., metals, ceramics, and polymers.

Fig 1.8 Structure showing combination for Composites

One of the example is fiberglass, in which small glass fibers are embedded wit hin a polymeric
material (normally an epoxy or polyester)The glass fibers are relatively strong and stiff (but also
brittle), whereas the polymer is ductile (but also weak and flexible). Thus, the resulting fiberglass is
relatively stiff, strong, flexible, and ductile. In addition, it has a low density. Eg : Human bones,
Diamond.
Iron Carbon Phase
Diagram
INTRODUCTION
• This group of ferrous materials is most important to the society
because of their wide range of properties and variety of
applications.
• Theoretically, steels are the alloys of iron and carbon n which the
carbon content is between 0.008 and 2.0 per cent. Commercial
steels always contain some amounts of other elements.
• If these elements are accidentally present without any intention,
they are called impurities. However, if they are added purposely,
they are called alloying elements.
• Sulphur and phosphorus are the common impurities which come
from the coke and ore used in the manufacture of steel. To
overcome the undesirable effects of sulphur, manganese is
always added in some amount to the steel.
INTRODUCTION
• Many other elements are also present in certain amounts and hence
commercial steels are rather complex alloys. Presence of these elements
in small amounts do not appreciably change the heat treatment behavior
and microstructures of steels.
• Steels with other elements in small amounts are called plain carbon steels
and their structures and properties can be discussed with the help of Fe-C
(or Fe - FeC) equilibrium diagram.
• In certain cases, some of the elements are intentionally added to steels to
increase some of the required properties.
• These steels are called alloy steels. The properties of alloy steels can also
be discussed with the help of Fe-C (or Fe-FeC) equilibrium diagram by
keeping in mind the influence of these elements on the above diagram or
by using a modified diagram.
• Therefore, it is highly essential to study the Fe-C (or Fe-FeC) equilibrium or
phase diagran1 in detail.
• α (Ferrite): Ferrite is an interstitial solid
solution of carbon in low temperature B.C.C.
α iron.
• It is almost a pure iron and the name ferrite
comes from the Latin word which means iron.
• The solubility of carbon in α - iron at room
temperature is It is a ferrum 0.008% and
increases with increasing temperature to
about 0.025% at 727°C. It is a relatively soft
and ductile phase (hardness 80 BHN).
• It can be extensively cold worked without
cracking. It is strongly ferromagnetic upto
768°C and becomes paramagnetic at 768°C
during heating.
• This temperature (768°C) at which ferrite
becomes paramagnetic 1s called Curie
temperature. The paramagnetic a which
exists between 768°C and 910' was denoted
as β in the old days.
• ϒ (Austenite) : Austenite is an
interstitial solid solution of carbon in F.
c.c.
• ϒ The phase is called Austenite in
honor of Sir Austin, who was one of the
first metallographer to study its
properties. It can dissolve upto 2.0%
carbon at 1147°C. The phase is stable
only above 727°C.
• It is a soft, ductile, malleable, and non-
magnetic (paramagnetic) phase. It can
be extensively worked at the
temperatures of its existence.
• δ (δ- ferrite): It is an interstitial solid
solution of carbon in high temperature
B.C.C. δ - iron. It is similar to α - ferrite
except its occurrence at high
temperature.
• Fe C (Cementite): It is an intermetallic
3

compound of iron and carbon with a

fixed carbon content of 6.67% by weight.
• Cementite has a complex orthorhombic
crystal structure with 12 iron atoms and
4 carbon atoms in a unit ell.
• It is extremely hard and brittle phase
(hardness -900 VPN). It is
ferromagnetic up to 210°C and
paramagnetic above this temperature.
• It is also called Iron Carbide or simply
Carbide in the discussion of Fe-C iron.
system.
• (i) Peritectic transformation: In general, peritectic transformation is
denoted as:
Peritectic transformation
Peritectic transformation
• Equations 9.2 and 9.3 are similar to peritectic transformation as
shown by equation 9.1
• Equation 9.2 indicates that for hypoperitectic steels, there is an
excess of δ and equation 9.3 indicates that there is an excess of
liquid for hyperperitectic steels before the start of transformation
and hence some amount of these phases remain after the
completion of transformation.
• This indicates that the peritectic transformation range is from 0.1% C
to 0.55% C. All the steels containing carbon between 0.1 and 0.55%
exhibit peritectic transformation when cooled from the liquid state.
• Other steels (i.e. steels containing carbon from 0.008 to 0.1% and
0.55 to 2.0%) do not undergo peritectic transformation.
• The above transformation occurs at a very high temperature where
the steels, if heated, show burning and hence is of no use for the
modification of properties of steels.
Eutectoid transformation
Eutectoid transformation
Eutectoid transformation
• This clearly reveals that the ferrite lamella is 7.4 times (i.e. about 7
times) thicker than cementite lamella. (Please remember that these
calculations have been done assuming the densities of ferrite and
cementite to be equal, and also the surface areas of ferrite and
cementite lamellae in pearlite are equal).
• "The properties of pearlite depend upon its interlamellar spacing.
Smaller the spacing, higher are the mechanical properties. The
interlamellar spacing depends on the cooling rate and within limit,
the spacing becomes less and less with increasing cooling rates.
• The hardness of pearlite with the usual cooling rates is between 230
and 270 BHN. However, for all practical purposes, the value of
hardness may be taken as 250 BHN The interlamellar spacing of a
pearlite is defined as the distance from the centre of a ferrite (or
cementite) lemella to the centre of the next adjacent ferrite (or
cementite) lamella.
 Eutectic transformation

Liquid of 4.3% carbon transforms at constant temperature of 1147°C and

gives an eutectic mixture of austenite (of 2.0% C) and cementite. This
eutectic mixture of austenite and cementite is called ledeburite. Austenite
from the ledeburite is not stable at low temperatures and gets transformed to
pearlite with slow rates of cooling at 727°C; and hence at room temperaturc,
structure consists of pearlite and cementite.
Eutectic transformation
• This mixture is called transformed ledeburite. The amounts of
pearlite and cementite in transformed ledeburite at room
temperature according to lever rule are as follows

• Cementite is hard and pearlite is also fairly hard and therefore,

transformed ledeburite is also hard and subsequently brittle.
 CRITICAL TEMPERATURES
• The temperatures at which the phase changes occur during
heating and cooling are called critical temperatures. These
temperatures and temperatures at which magnetic changes
occur are denoted by symbols. These symbols with their
meaning during heating under equilibrium conditions are given
below
• Aₒ: This denotes the temperature at which cementite changes
from ferromagnetic to paramagnetic character. This is indicated
by a dotted line AB at 210°C.
 CRITICAL TEMPERATURES
• A₁: This denotes the
temperature at which
pearlite transforms to
austenite.
• This transformation
occurs at a constant
temperature of 727°C
called eutectoid
temperature and does
not depend on the
carbon content in the
alloy. It is denoted by the
line DEF This
temperature is known as
lower critical
temperature.
 CRITICAL TEMPERATURES
• A₂: This indicates the
temperature at which
ferromagnetic ferrite
becomes
paramagnetic. This is
shown by a dotted line
GH in Fig. at 768°C
(Curie temperature).
The loss of
ferromagnetism
continues with the line
HEF.
 CRITICAL TEMPERATURES
• A₃: It is the temperature at
which the last trace of free
ferrite gets dissolved to
from 100% austenite.
• It represents the
temperature of (a + y)/y
phase boundary and is a
function of carbon content.
It decreases from 910°C at
0% C to 727°C at Ag O.8%
C, which is shown by a line
CHE in Fig. 9.1. This
temperature is known as
upper critical temperature
for ferrite.
 CRITICAL TEMPERATURES
• For steels containing about 0.5%
C to 0.8%C disappearance of
ferromagnetism (A₂) coincides
with disappearance of ferrite (A₃)
. and hence the upper critical
temperature in this region is
frequently identified as A₃₂. In
hypereutectoid steels, all A₁ A₂
and A₃ coincide with the
eutectoid temperature and
hence to the right of 0.8% C, the
lower critical temperature is
often designated as A₁₂₃
Thank You
Concept of Crystal & Crystal Defects
Concept of Crystal
• A crystal is a material whose constituents, such as atoms,
molecules or ions, are arranged in a highly ordered microscopic
structure. These constituents are held together by interatomic
forces (chemical bonds) such as metallic bonds, ionic bonds,
covalent bonds, van der Waals bonds, and others.
The crystalline state of matter  is the state with the highest order, ie,
with very high internal correlations and at the greatest distance
range. This is reflected in their properties: anisotropic and
discontinuous. Crystals usually appear as unadulterated,
homogenous and with well-defined geometric shapes (habits) when
they are well-formed. However, as we say in Spanish, "the habit does
not make the monk" (clothes do not make the man) and their
external morphology is not sufficient to evaluate the crystallinity of
a material.
Concept of Crystal
what is unique about crystals which distinguishes them from other
types of materials? The so-called microscopic crystal structure is
characterized by groups of ions, atoms or molecules arranged in
terms of some periodic repetition model, and this concept
(periodicity) is easy to understand if we look at the drawings in
an carpet, in a mosaic, or a military parade...
Concept of Crystal

If we look carefully at these drawings, we will discover that there is always a fraction of
them that is repeated. In crystals, the atoms, ions or molecules are packed in such a
way that they give rise to "motifs" (a given set or unit) that are repeated every 5
Angstrom, up to the hundreds of Angstrom (1 Angstrom = 10-8 cm), and this repetition,
in three dimensions, is known as the crystal lattice. The motif or unit that is repeated, by
orderly shifts in three dimensions, produces the network (the whole crystal) and we call
it the elementary cell or unit cell. The content of the unit being repeated (atoms,
molecules, ions) can also be drawn as a point (the reticular point) that represents every
constituent of the motif. For example, each soldier in the figure above could be a
reticular point.
 Concept of Crystal
• But there are occasions where the repetition is broken, or it is
not exact, and this feature is precisely what distinguishes a
crystal from glass, or in general, from materials called
amorphous (disordered or poorly ordered)...

Planar atomic model of an ordered material (crystal) Planar atomic model of  glass (an amorphous material)
 Concept of Crystal
• However, matter is not entirely ordered
or disordered (crystalline or non-
crystalline) and so we can find a
continuous degradation of the order
(crystallinity degree) in materials,
which goes from the perfectly ordered
(crystalline) to the completely
disordered (amorphous). This gradual
loss of order which is present in
materials is equivalent to what we see
in the small details of the following
photograph of gymnastic training,
which is somewhat ordered, but there
are some people wearing pants, other
wearing skirts, some in different
positions or slightly out of line...
 
Concept of Crystal
• However, matter is not entirely ordered or disordered (crystalline or non-crystalline) and
so we can find a continuous degradation of the order (crystallinity degree) in materials,
which goes from the perfectly ordered (crystalline) to the completely disordered
(amorphous). This gradual loss of order which is present in materials is equivalent to
what we see in the small details of the following photograph of gymnastic training, which
is somewhat ordered, but there are some people wearing pants, other wearing skirts,
some in different positions or slightly out of line...
 
Concept of Crystal
• In the crystal structure (ordered) of inorganic materials, the
repetitive units (or motifs) are atoms or ions, which are linked
together in such a way that we normally do not distinguish
isolated units and hence their stability and hardness (ionic
crystals, mainly)...

Crystal structure of an inorganic material:  α-quartz

Concept of Crystal
• Where we clearly
distinguish isolated units is
in the case of the so-called
organic materials, where the
concept of the isolated
entity (molecule) appears.
Molecules are made up
of atoms linked together.
However, the links between
the molecules within the
crystal are very weak
(molecular crystals). Thus,
they are generally softer and
more unstable materials Crystal structure of an organic
material: Cinnamamide
than the inorganic ones.
Concept of Crystal
• Protein crystals also contain molecular units (molecules), as in the
organic materials, but much larger. The type of forces that bind
these molecules are also similar, but their packing in the crystals
leaves many holes that are filled with water molecules (not
necessarily ordered) and hence their extreme instability...
The different packing modes in crystals lead to the so-
called polymorphic phases (allotropic phases of the
elements) which confer different properties to
these crystals (to these materials). For example, we
all know the different appearances and properties of the
chemical element carbon, which is present in Nature in
two different crystalline forms, diamond and graphite:

In the diamond structure, each carbon atom is linked to

four other ones in the form of a very compact three-
dimensional network (covalent crystals), hence its
extreme hardness and its property as an electric insulator.
However, in the graphite structure, the carbon atoms are
arranged in parallel layers much more separated than the
atoms in a single layer. Due to these weak links between
the atomic layers of graphite, the layers can slide, without
much effort, and hence graphite's suitability as a lubricant,
its use for pens and as an electrical conductor.
Crystal Defects
Crystal Defects
• Imperfections/Defects exists in all solid materials. For ease of
their characterization, defects are classified on the basis of their
geometry, which is realistic as defects are disrupted region in a
volume of a solid.
Defects are:
a. Point defects (zero-dimensional)
b. Line defects (single dimensional)
c. Surface defects (two dimensional)
d. Volume defects (three dimensional)
Point defects
• Point defects are imperfect point-like regions in the crystal.
Typical size of a point defect is about 1- 2 atomic diameters. The
simplest point defects are as follows:
• Vacancy – missing atom at a certain crystal lattice position
• Impurity atom – extra impurity atom in crystal lattice position
1. Self-interstitial atom – extra atom in an interstitial position
2. Substitution impurity atom – impurity atom, substituting an
atom in crystal lattice
• Frenkel defect – extra self-interstitial atom, responsible for the
vacancy nearby.
• Schottky defect – vacancies of an anion and cation atom.
Point defects
• Vacancy is a vacant lattice position from where the atom is missing. It is
usually created when the solid is formed by cooling the liquid.
• There are other ways of making a vacancy, but they also occur naturally as
a result of thermal excitation, and these are thermodynamically stable at
temperatures greater than zero.
• An interstitial atom or interstitialcy is an atom that occupies a place
outside the normal lattice position. It may be the same type of atom as the
rest surrounding it (self interstitial) or a foreign impurity atom. Interstitialcy
is most probable if the atomic packing factor is low.
• Another way an impurity atom can be fitted into a crystal lattice is by
substitution. A substitutional atom is a foreign atom occupying original
lattice position by displacing the parent atom.
Point defects
• In ionic crystals, existence of point defects is subjected to the condition of
charge neutrality.
• There are two possibilities for point defects in ionic solids.
1. Frenkel defect: When an ion displaced from a regular position to an
interstitial position creating a vacancy, the pair of vacancy-interstitial is
called Frenkel defect. Cations are usually smaller and thus displaced easily
than anions. Closed packed structures have fewer 0D Point defects Vacancy
Impurity Frenkel defect Schottky defect Non-ionic crystals Ionic crystals
Interstitial Substitutional interstitials and displaced ions than vacancies
because additional energy is required to force the atoms into the interstitial
positions.
2. Schottky defect: A pair of one cation and one anion can be missing from
an ionic crystal, without violating the condition of charge neutrality when the
valency of ions is equal. The pair of vacant sites, thus formed, is called
Schottky defect. This type of point defect is dominant in alkali halides.
These ion-pair vacancies, like single vacancies, facilitate atomic diffusion.
Line Defects
• Line imperfections (one-dimensional defects) are also called
Dislocations. They are abrupt changes in the regular ordering of
atoms along a line (dislocation line) in the solid.
• They occur in high densities and strongly influence the
mechanical properties of material. They are characterized by the
Burgers vector (b), whose direction and magnitude can be
determined by constructing a loop around the disrupted region
and noticing the extra inter-atomic spacing needed to close the
loop.
• Dislocations occur when an extra incomplete plane is inserted.
The dislocation line is at the end of the plane. Dislocations can be
best understood by referring to two limiting cases - Edge
dislocation and Screw dislocation.
Line Defects
• Edge dislocation- It is characterized by a Burger’s vector that is
perpendicular to the dislocation line. It may be described as an
edge of an extra plane of atoms within a crystal structure.
• Thus regions of compression and tension are associated with an
edge dislocation. Because of extra incomplete plane of atoms, the
atoms above the dislocation line are squeezed together and are in
state of compression whereas atoms below are pulled apart and
experience tensile stresses.
• Edge dislocation is considered positive when compressive
stresses present above the dislocation line, and is represented by
┴. If the stress state is opposite i.e. compressive stresses exist
below the dislocation line, it is considered as negative edge
dislocation, and represented by ┬.
Edge dislocation
• A pure edge dislocation can glide or slip in a direction
perpendicular to its length i.e.along its Burger’s vector in the slip
plane (made of b vectors), on which dislocation moves by slip
while conserving number of atoms in the incomplete plane. It
may move vertically by a process known as climb, if diffusion of
atoms or vacancies can take place at appropriate rate.
 Screw dislocation
• It has its dislocation line
parallel to the Burger’s vector.
A screw dislocation is like a
spiral ramp with an
imperfection line down its
axis.
• Screw dislocations result
when displacing planes
relative to each other through
shear. Shear stresses are
associated with the atoms
adjacent to the screw
dislocation; therefore extra
energy is involved as it is in
the case of edge dislocations.
 Screw dislocation
• Screw dislocation is considered positive if
Burger’s vector are parallel, and vice versa.
A positive screw dislocation is represented
by clock-wise direction”, whereas the
negative screw dislocation is represented by
anti-clock-wise direction”.
• A screw dislocation does not have a
preferred slip plane, as an edge dislocation
has, and thus the motion of a screw
dislocation is less restricted than the
motion of an Edge dislocation.
• As there is no preferred slip plane, screw
dislocation can cross-slip on to another
plane, and can continue its glide under
favorable stress conditions. However, screw
dislocation can not move by climb process,
whereas edge dislocations can not cross-
slip.
• Dislocations more commonly originate during plastic deformation, during
solidification, and as a consequence of thermal stresses that result from rapid
cooling.
• Edge dislocation arises when there is a slight mismatch in the orientation of
adjacent parts of the growing crystal.
• A screw dislocation allows easy crystal growth because additional atoms can be
added to the ‘step’ of the screw. Thus the term screw is apt, because the step
swings around the axis as growth proceeds.
• Unlike point defects, these are not thermodynamically stable. They can be removed
by heating to high temperatures where they cancel each other or move out through
the crystal to its surface.
• Virtually all crystalline materials contain some dislocations. The density of
dislocations in a crystal is measures by counting the number of points at which they
intersect a random cross-section of the crystal. These points, called etch-pits, can
be seen under microscope. In an annealed crystal, the dislocation density is the
range of 108-1010m-2.
• Any dislocation in a crystal is a combination of edge and screw types, having varying
degrees of edge and screw character.
Surface Defects
• Surface defects can be defined as boundaries that have two dimensional
imperfections in crystalline solids, and have different crystal structures and/
or crystallographic orientations on either side of them.
• They refer to the regions of distortions that lie about a surface having
thickness of a few atomic diameters. For example: external surfaces, grain
boundaries, twin boundaries, stacking faults, and phase boundaries.
• These imperfections are not thermodynamically stable, rather they are meta-
stable imperfections. They arise from the clustering of line defects into a
plane.
• External surface: The environment of an atom at a surface differs from that
of an atom in the bulk; especially the number of neighbors (coordination) at
surface is less. Thus the unsaturated bonds of surface atoms give rise to a
surface energy. This result in relaxation (the lattice spacing is decreased) or
reconstruction (the crystal structure changes). To reduce the energy,
materials tend to minimize, if possible, the total surface area.
• Grain boundaries: Crystalline solids are, usually, made of
number of grains separated by grain boundaries. Grain
boundaries are several atoms distances wide, and there is
mismatch of orientation of grains on either side of the boundary.
• When this misalignment is slight, on the
order of few degrees (< 10degree), it is
called low angle grain boundary.
• These boundaries can be described in
terms of aligned dislocation arrays. If the
low grain boundary is formed by edge
dislocations, it is called tilt boundary, and
twist boundary if formed of screw
dislocations.
• Both tilt and twist boundaries are planar
surface imperfections in contrast to high
angle grain boundaries. For high angle
grain boundaries, degree of disorientation
is of large range (> 15 degree).
• Grain boundaries are chemically more
reactive because of grain boundary energy.
In spite of disordered orientation of atoms
at grain boundaries, polycrystalline solids
are still very strong as cohesive forces
present within and across the boundary.
Tilt and twist Angle Grain Boundary
 Twin boundaries
Twin boundaries occur impairs such that the orientation change introduced by one boundary is
restored by the other win boundaries: It is a special type of grain boundary across which there is
specific mirror lattice symmetry. • (figure-3.7). The region between the pair of boundaries is called
the twinned region.
• Twins which forms during the process of recrystallization are called annealing twins, whereas
deformation twins form during plastic deformation.
• Twinning occurs on a definite crystallographic plane and in a specific direction, both of which
depend on the crystal structure.
• Annealing twins are typically found in metals that have FCC crystal structure (and low stacking fault
energy), while mechanical/deformation twins are observed in BCC and HCP metals. Annealing twins
are usually broader and with straighter sides than mechanical twins. Twins do not extend beyond a
grain boundary.
Bulk or Volume defects
• Volume defects are defects in 3-dimensions which include pores, cracks,
foreign inclusions and other phases.
• These defects are normally introduced during processing and fabrication
steps.
• All these defects are capable of acting as stress raisers, and thus
deleterious to parent metal’s mechanical behavior.
• In some cases foreign particles are added purposefully to strengthen the
parent material. The procedure is called dispersion hardening where foreign
particles act as obstacles to movement of dislocations, which facilitates
plastic deformation. The second-phase particles act in two distinct ways –
particles are either may be cut by the dislocations or the particles resist
cutting and dislocations are forced to bypass them. Strengthening due to
ordered particles is responsible for the good high-temperature strength on
many super-alloys. However, pores are detrimental because they reduce
effective load bearing area and act as stress concentration sites.
Thank You
 Importance of NDT
• Does not permanently alter the article being inspected

• Saves both money and time in product evaluation,

troubleshooting and research

• Can be used to detect flaws in an in-process machine part also

 Definition

A wide group of analysis techniques used in

science and industry to evaluate the properties
of a material, component or system without
causing any damage.
 Non-destructive Examination (NDE)
 Non-destructive Inspection (NDI)
 Non-destructive Evaluation (NDE)
 Uses of NDE Methods

Flaw Detection and Evaluation

Leak Detection
Location Determination
Dimensional Measurements
Structure and Microstructure Characterization
Estimation of Mechanical and Physical
Properties
Stress (Strain) and Dynamic Response
Measurements
Material Sorting and Chemical Composition
Common Application of NDT

 Inspection of Raw Products

Inspection
Following
Secondary
Processing

 In-Services Damage Inspection

 NDT Techniques are Employed by

Oil and Gas Refineries

Fabrication Units
Chemicals and Fertilizers
Heavy Engineering workshops
Aerospace and Aircraft
Building Construction
Storage Tank Farms and Containers
Automobile and Components
Electrical & Electronic Equipment
 Common NDT Methods

Visual Testing (VT)

Magnetic Particle Testing (MPT)
Dye Penetrant Testing (DPT)
Liquid Penetrant Testing (LPT)

 Ultrasonic Testing (UT)

 Radiographic Testing (RT)
 Eddy-current Testing
 Visual Inspection

Most basic and common inspection method

Portable video
inspection unit with
zoom allows
inspection of large
tanks and vessels,
railroad tank cars,
sewer lines.

Robotic crawlers permit

observation in hazardous or tight
areas, such as air ducts, reactors,
pipelines.
 VT is Selected to Detect

 Surface deposits
 Scaling
 Corrosion
 Discoloration
 Oxidation bulging
 Missing parts
 Mechanical damage
 Dimensional conformance
 Gross effects visible on the surface
 Distortion / Damage of components during fabrication and/or
while in services
 General Corrosion on the surface of a component
 Liquid Penetrant Testing

1. Section of material with a

surface-breaking crack that may not
be visible to the naked eye

2. Penetrant is applied to the

surface

3. Excess penetrant is removed

4. Developer is applied, rendering

the crack visible to eye

2
 LPT is Selected to Detect

Cracks of any orientation

Porosity
Pin Holes
Voids
Forging Laps
Forging Bursts
Lamination in plates
Various types of weld defects
Corrosion cracks
Creep fissures
Fatigue cracks
 MPT is Selected to Detect
(only ferromagnetic materials)

Surface discontinuities:
 Cracks and tears
 Porosity
 Shrinking cavities
 Slag inclusions
 Voids
 Forging laps
 Grinding cracks
 Corrosion cracks
 Fatigue cracks
 
Discontinuities below the surface if a defect is deeper:
 
Larger size cracks in various orientations
 Pores
 Slag inclusions
 Usage of Magnetic Field

Using permanent magnet or electromagnet that contacts the test piece

Flowing an electrical current through the specimen
Flowing an electrical current through a coil of wire around the part or
12
through a central conductor running near the part
 RT Selected to Detect & Assess Size of

 Cracks (parallel to the radiation beam)

 Volumetric defects such as slag inclusions, voids etc:
 Porosity
 Blockages or deposits inside the pipe lines are pressure vessels
 Material thickness
 To detect hidden foreign material inside a component
 
 Radiography

High Electrical Potential

Electrons
+ -

X-ray Generator
or Radioactive
Source Creates
Radiation

 Radiation used in Radiography testing is

Radiation
a higher energy (shorter wavelength) Penetrates
version of the electromagnetic waves that the Sample
we see as Visible Light.
 The radiation can come from an X-ray
generator or a radioactive source.
Exposure Recording Device
 Film Radiography
Part is placed between a radiation source and piece of film
The part will stop some of the
radiation. Thicker and more dense
area will stop more of the
radiation.

The film darkness (density)

will vary with the amount of
radiation reaching the film
through the test object.
X-ray film

= less exposure
= more exposure
Top view of developed film
 UT is Selected to Detect the Size of
 
 Surface breaking and hidden cracks in any
orientation
 Inter granular cracks
 Laps
 Laminations
 Volumetric defects such slag inclusions,
voids, etc
 Porosity
 Wall thickness measurements
 Creep
 Hydrogen entrapment
 Liquid level measurement
 To detect blockages, deposits, etc in the pipe
lines and pressure vessels
 
 Ultrasonic Inspection (Pulse-Echo)

High frequency sound waves are introduced into a material. They are
reflected back from surfaces /flaws
Reflected sound energy is displayed versus time, and inspector can
visualize a cross section of specimen showing the depth of features thatf
reflect sound

initial
pulse

back surface
echo
crack
echo

crack
0 2 4 6 8 10 plate

Oscilloscope, or flaw detector screen

 Eddy-Current Testing is for

Uses electromagnetic induction to detect flaws in conductive

materials
Variations in the electrical conductivity or magnetic permeability of
the test object, or the presence of any flaws, will cause a change in
eddy current and a corresponding change in the phase and
amplitude of the measured current.
Power Plant Inspection

Inspectors feed eddy

current probes into heat
exchanger tubes to check
for corrosion damage.

Pipe with damage

Signals produced by
various amounts of
corrosion thinning.
 NDT Techniques are Evolving …

NDT techniques provide cost-effective and reliable

analysis under realistic conditions.

Each NDT technique has certain capabilities and

limitations and often more than one technique is
used to cover various parts.

Increasing availability of robotic scanners improve

the speed of testing large surfaces, hence minimizing
the testing time.
Cooling curves superimposed on
a hypothetical TTT and CCT
diagram for Eutectoid steels
Cooling curves superimposed
on a hypothetical TTT and CCT
diagram for eutectoid steels
• A cooling curve is determined
experimentally by placing a
thermocouple at a definite
location in a steel sample and
then measuring the variation of
temperature with time.
• Since the Coordinates of the
TTT and CCT diagram are the
same as those for a cooling
curve, it is possible to
superimpose various cooling
curve on them. Fig. 4.4 (a)
shows TTT diagram and Fig. 4.4
(b) shows CCT diagram for
0.8% carbon eutectoid steel.
Cooling curves superimposed
on a hypothetical TTT and CCT
diagram for eutectoid steels

• Above 727°C temperature,

austenite is stable and at 727°C
eutectoid transformation occurs
and austenite becomes
unstable which tries to
transform into some stable
form.
• The stable are forms below
727°C are pearlite, bainite and
martensite. These various
transformations a explained
using TTT and CCT diagram.
Cooling Curve- I (Course Pearlite):
• This curve is obtained by a very slow cooling
rate in the conventional annealing
• process. The transformation product of this
cooling curve will be coarse pearlite. In TIT
• diagram, when cooling of unstable austenite
will be carried out between 675C to 727C
• isothermally, it will transform into coarse
pearlite. The same transformation can be
obtained
• by continuous cooling (CCT), when unstable
austenite will be cooled by 1°C/sec cooling
rate.
• The transformation will start when the
transformation product crosses starting TTT
and CT curve and finishes it crosses finishing
TTT and CCT curve.
• After transformation finish, the rate of
cooling will have no effect on the
microstructure or properties. Commercially,
material may be removed from the furnace
after completion of transformation and
Cooling Curve - II (Medium Pearlite)
:
• This cooling curve is obtained by
isothermal or cycle annealing
process. The transformation
product of this cooling curve is
medium pearlite.
• This transformation occurs when
material cooled between 600 to
675°C at a constant temperature
in TTT diagram and 3°C/sec
continuous cooling rate in CCT
diagram. Microstructure shows
uniform cementite in the matrix
of a-ferrite.
• The hardness of this material
will be between 16 to 30 Rc.
Cooling Curve – III (Fine Pearlite):
• This cooling curve is obtained by
the normalizing process.
• The transformation product of
this cooling curve is fine pearlite.
• This transformation occurs when
the material will be cooled
between 500 to 600°C at a
constant temperature in TTT
diagram and 5'C/sec continuous
cooling rate in CCT diagram.
• The microstructure of fine
pearlite shows in particles of
cementite in the matrix of a-
ferrite. The hardness of this
material will be between 31 to
40 Rc.
Cooling Curve IV (Upper Bainite):
• This cooling curve is obtained only by
cooling material rapidly enough to miss the
nose of the TTT curve and then at a
constant temperature for transformation.
• The constant temperature is maintained
just below the nose of TTT curve. The
transformation product of this curve is
upper bainite.
• Bainite is a fine pearlite and contains a very
fine distribution of ferrite and cementite
phase.
• Upper bainite has a feathery appearance
under the optical microscope. Bainite is not
formed during continuous cooling because
it is hidden below the nose of CCT diagram.
• In continuous cooling, before steel enters in
the bainitic region, either pearlitic
transformation is complete or starts and its
growth continues when steel passes
through the bainite region. The hardness of
this material will be up to 40 Rc.
Cooling Curve - V (Lower Bainite):
• This cooling curve is obtained
by cooling material rapidly
enough to miss the nose of
TTT curve just above 210°C
temperature (Ms).
• Hold it at a constant
temperature for transformation.
The transformation product is
lower bainite.
• It is observed under an optical
microscope as an acicular
(needle like) appearance. The
hardness of lower bainite is
between 50 to 60 Rc. It is not
observed in the TTT diagram.
Cooling Curve -VI (Critical Cooling
Rate):

• This curve is tangent to the

nose of TTT and CCT curve. It
is the slowest cooling rate at
which austenite can be
transformed into Martensite.
• It is 140°C/sec. for eutectoid
steel
Cooling Curve - VII (Martensite)
• This curve is obtained by very
fast cooling rate (350°C/sec).
The transformation product of
this curve is martensite.
• It gives maximum hardness in
the plain carbon steel which is
64 Rc.
• This curve is obtained by rapid
quenching enough to avoid
transformation in the nose
region.
Thank You
TTT & CCT Diagrams
HEAT TREATMENT OF STEELS
• The heat treatment is a very broad term and includes any
heating and cooling operations or any sequence of two or more
such operations applied to any material in order to modify its
internal structure or to alter its physical, mechanical or chemical
properties.
• Heat treatment is carried out by heating the material to some
specific temperature, holding at that tempera true tor a definite
period and cooling to room temperature or below room
temperature with a definite rate
Objectives of Heat Treatment of Steels
• To increase hardness, wear, and abrasion resistance.
• To resoftening the steel after cold working
• To adjust mechanical, physical or chemical properties of steel.
• To remove internal stresses.
• To refine grain structure.
• To increase machinability.
• To change the composition of steel.
TIME TEMPERATURE TRANSFORMATION (TTT)
DIAGRAM
• The effect of time-temperature on the microstructure changes of a steel
can be shown by TTT diagram.
• These diagrams are extensively used in the assessment of the
decomposition of austenite in heat-treatable steels.
• The iron-carbon phase diagram does not show time as a variable and
hence the effects of different cooling rates on the structures of steels
are not revealed.
• Moreover, equilibrium conditions are not maintained in heat treatment.
• The iron-carbon equilibrium diagram reveals on the phases and
corresponding microstructures under equilibrium conditions but several
useful properties of the steels can be obtained under non-equilibrium
conditions, e.g. variable rates of cooling as produced during quenching
and better transformation of austenite into pearlite and martensite.
TIME TEMPERATURE TRANSFORMATION (TTT)
DIAGRAM
• It has been found in the study of steel that, austenite is unstable
below the lower critical temperature A₁.
• Below A₁ temperature austenite may transform to pearlite,
bainite or martensite. It is necessary to know that, how these
transformations occurred.
• To study the transformation of austenite, the eutectoid
composition of 0.8% carbon steel bar is cut into a large
numbers of specimens.
The steps usually followed to determine TTT
diagram are:
1. Samples are prepared in shapes as shown in Fig.
2. Place the samples in a furnace or molten salt bath in the austenitic
temperature. For eutectoid steel, this temperature is 780°C
(727°+50°C approximately).
3. Specimens should be held at this constant temperature to make a
complete austenitic structure in the sample.
4. These specimens are divided into groups each of which is quickly
transferred to an incubation' bath maintained at a constant
temperature below A₁
5. After predetermined time intervals individual specimens are removed
from their baths and quenched into water.
6. The micro structure is then examined to see the extent to which the
transformation had taken place at the holding temperature
 The steps usually followed to determine TTT
diagram
• Let us assume that, we have heated number of specimens of eutectoid
steel above 780°C in a furnace.
• Hold these specimens for specified time at this constant temperature for
complete austenitic structure.
• Now take one specimen and quench it into a molten salt bath having
constant temperature 600°C, which is maintained in another furnace.
• Mark the point where austenitic transformation begins (TS₁) and at same
600° constant temperature, mark the point where austenitic
transformation finish (TF₁).
• After completion of transformation, quench specimen in water and allow
to cool up to room temperature.
 The steps usually followed to determine TTT
diagram
• Once austenite is transformed, there is no change in microstructure from
transformation finish point to room temperature.
• It is shown in Fig. The same procedure is repeated for different
specimens for different constant temperatures below 727°C.
• Mark corresponding transformation starts points and transformation
finish points.
• Join all transformation starts points and transformation finish points.
• It gives two Separate curves and is called as Time Temperarure-
Transtormation (TTT) curve.
The steps usually followed to determine
TTT diagram
• Transformation of austenite to pearlite is not linear as shown at
constant temperature 600°C. Initially, the rate of transformation is
very slow, then it increases rapidly, and finally, it slows down towards
the end.
• It is common practice to plot the time for 50% transformation. Time
is plotted on a logarithmic scale so that times of 1 minute or less, as
well as times of 1 day or week, can be fitted into a reasonable space.
• The diagram is also known as I-T (Isothermal. Transformation)
diagram because it is drawn at isothermal (constant) temperatures.
It can also refer as S-curve or C-curve.
Practical Difficulties in Plotting TTT Diagram
1. Austenite to Martensite or Austenite to Pearlite are various
transformations in which, it is impossible to change the
temperature from 727°C to 500°C in zero time and from 500°C
to 0°C in zero time.
2. Specimen size should be kept small and special care should
be taken during their rapid transfer between baths.
3. Austenite to Martensite transformation never complete at
room temperature and it requires to cool material below room
temperature
4. TTT diagrams are plotted for isothermal transformations of
austenite and are not Valid for actual heat treatment
processes such as full annealing, normalizing and hardening
The procedure for plotting CCT diagram
1. The eutectoid composition of 0.8% carbon steel bar is cut into a
number of specimens.
2. Heat these specimens at 780°C temperature in the furnace.
3. Hold these specimens at a constant temperature of 780°C for
complete austenitic structure.
4. After predetermined time intervals, the individual specimen is
removed from the furnace and cooled up to room temperature by
various continuous cooling rates.
5. Mark corresponding transformation start points and corresponding
finish points, it gives separate curves one by joining all starting
points and other by joining all transformation finish points.
 CCT Diagram
• CCT diagram is shown in
Fig. If TTT and CCT
diagram is compared for
the eutectoid composition
of 0.8% carbon steel, the
points on CCT diagram are
at a lower temperature
and longer time than the
corresponding points on
the TTT diagram.