BMCG 2323 – Manufacturing Process

Chapter 2 – Manufacturing
Materials
Raw Materials
for
manufacturing
processes
How material progress

3
 Material Classification
METALLIC NON METALLIC
• Ferrous- • Organics-
Steel Polymers-
Cast Irons Thermoset,
Thermoplastic
• Non-ferrous- Elastomer
Aluminum,
Cooper, • Non-organics-
Magnesium, Mineral,
Titanium, Cement,
Zink, Glass,
Lead, Ceramics,
Nickels and alloys Graphite

4
https://spoonfeedme.com.au/course/294/super/engg110/engineering-materials/video/26487
Polymers/Plastics
• Soft, ductile, low strength, low
density, thermal & electrical
insulators. Optically translucent or
transparent.
• Mechanical properties include
flexibility and elasticity
• Subgroup
o Plastics
o Thermosets &
Thermoplastics
o Elastomers

5
 Ceramics:
Compounds of metallic & non-metallic elements
(oxides, carbides, nitrides, sulfides)
Brittle, glassy, elastic
non-conducting (insulators)
Mechanical properties include high strength at high
temperatures and brittleness

• Clay – Shaped, dried, and fired inorganic

material
Examples: Brick, tile, sewer pipe, porcelain, etc.
• Refractory – Designed to provide acceptable
mechanical or chemical properties while at
high temperatures
Example: Space shuttle all-silica insulating tiles
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Composites
❑ Composed of more then one material
❑ Designed to obtain desirable properties
from each individual material
▪ Layer Composites – Alternate layers of
materials bonded together
▪ Particulate Composites – Discrete
particles of one material surrounded by a
matrix of another material
▪ Fiber-Reinforced Composites –
Composed of continuous or discontinuous
fibers embedded in a matrix of another
material

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Organics Materials

▪ Consist of mostly carbon and hydrogen

▪ Genetically alterable
▪ Renewable
▪ Sustainable

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 Metal
s

Strong, ductile, high thermal & electrical conductivity, opaque, reflective.

• Pure metal elements

(Not commonly found or used)
• Metal element compounds (alloy)
(Commonly used due to the engineered properties of the compound) 9
MATERIAL SELECTION
Applications of materials can vary from electrical components
to construction of large-scale civil engineering projects

Material selection is based upon

• Application,
• Budget
• Required material properties

Initial material property considerations consist of

• Product function,
• Environmental conditions, and
• Material degradation.
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 Material Properties
Mechanical • response to mechanical forces, strength, etc.

Electrical & • response electrical and magnetic fields, conductivity,

magnetic etc.

Thermal • related to transmission of heat and heat capacity.

Optical • absorption, transmission and scattering of light.

Chemical • contact with the environment - corrosion resistance.

11
Material Properties - Mechanical
• Deformation and fracture as a response to
applied mechanical forces
Strength
Hardness
Ductility
Stiffness
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Iron & Steel
 Steel classification
Classifications De-oxidation process (oxygen removed
Types of Steel can also be classified by a from steelmaking process): Killed & Semi-
variety of different factors: Killed Steel, Etc.

Composition: Carbon range, Alloy. Stainless Microstructure: Ferritic, Pearlitic,

Martensitic, etc.
The production method: Continuous cast,
Electric furnace, Etc. Physical Strength (Per ASTM Standards).

Finishing method used: Cold rolled, Hot Heat Treatment: Annealed, Quenched &
Rolled, Cold Drawn Tempered, etc.

Form or shape: Bar, Rod, Tube, Pipe, Plate, Quality Nomenclature: Commercial
Sheet, Structural, Etc. Quality, Drawing Quality, Pressure Vessel
Quality, etc.

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Steel Categories
According to the World Steel
Association, there are over 3,500
different grades of steel,
encompassing unique physical,
chemical and environmental
properties.
According to the American Iron & Steel
Institute (AISI), Steel can be
categorized into four basic groups
based on the chemical compositions:
• Carbon Steel
• Alloy Steel
• Stainless Steel
• Tool Steel
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16
17
 CARBON STEEL
1. Low Carbon Steel (Mild
Steel): Typically contain
0.04% to 0.30% carbon
content.
• This is one of the largest
groups of Carbon Steel.
• Great diversity of shapes;
from Flat Sheet to
Structural Beam.
• Depending on the desired
properties needed, other
elements are added or
increased.
Carbon steels contain trace amounts of alloying elements and account for 90% of total steel
production
2. Medium Carbon Steel:
Typically has a carbon range
of 0.31% to 0.60%, and a
manganese content ranging
from .060% to 1.65%.
• This product is stronger
than low carbon steel,
and it is more difficult to
form, weld and cut.
• Medium carbon steels are
quite often hardened and
tempered using heat
treatment.
https://www.metalsupermarkets.com/types-of-steel/
3. High Carbon Steel:
Commonly known as
“carbon tool steel” it
typically has a carbon
range between 0.61% and
1.50%.
• High carbon steel is
very difficult to cut,
bend and weld.
• Once heat treated it
becomes extremely
hard and brittle.
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 CARBON STEEL
1. Low Carbon Steel: 2. Medium Carbon Steel: 3. High Carbon Steel:
Examples: Bullets, Nuts and Examples: Axles, crankshafts, Examples: Springs, High-
Bolts, Chains, Hinges, Knives gears strength wires

19
ALLOY STEEL
Alloy steel is a steel that has had
small amounts of one or more
alloying elements (other than
carbon) such as such as
Manganese, Silicon, Nickel,
Titanium, Copper, Chromium and
Aluminum in varying proportions
in order to manipulate the steels
properties such as its
hardenability, corrosion resistance,
strength, formability, weldability,
or ductility.
This produces specific
properties such as responsive to
heat and mechanical treatments
that are not found in regular
carbon steel.
The heat-treated type is
available in both Annealed and
Normalized.
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Annealing is a heat treatment process
which alters the microstructure of a
material to change its mechanical or
electrical properties.

Normalizing process is a heat

treatment process for making material
softer but does not produce the
uniform material properties as
produced with an annealing process.

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 ALLOYING ELEMENTS in STEEL
Carbon (C)
• The most important constituent of steel. Raises tensile strength, hardness, resistance to wear and abrasion. It
lowers ductility, toughness and machinability.

Chromium (CR)
• Increases tensile strength, hardness, hardenability, toughness, resistance to wear and abrasion, resistance to
corrosion, and scaling at elevated temperatures.

Cobalt (CO)
• Increases strength and hardness and permits higher quenching temperatures and increases the red hardness of
high speed steel. It also intensifies the individual effects of other major elements in more complex steels.

Niobium (Ni) or Columbium (CB)

• Used as stabilizing elements in stainless steels. Each has a high affinity for carbon and forms carbides, which are
uniformly dispersed throughout the steel. Thus, localized precipitation of carbides at grain boundaries is
prevented.

Copper (CU)
• In significant amounts is detrimental to hot-working steels. Copper negatively affects forge welding, but does not
seriously affect arc or oxyacetylene welding. Copper can be detrimental to surface quality. Copper is beneficial to
atmospheric corrosion resistance when present in amounts exceeding 0.20%. Weathering steels are sold having
greater than 0.20% Copper.

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 ALLOYING ELEMENTS in STEEL
Manganese (MN)
• A deoxidizer and degasifier and reacts with sulphur to improve forgeability. It increases tensile strength, hardness,
hardenability and resistance to wear. It decreases tendency toward scaling and distortion. It increases the rate of
carbon-penetration in carburizing.

Molybdenum (MO)
• Increases strength, hardness, hardenability, and toughness, as well as creep resistance and strength at elevated
temperatures. It improves machinability and resistance to corrosion and it intensifies the effects of other alloying
elements. In hot-work steels and high speed steels, it increases red-hardness properties.

Nickel (NI)
• Increases strength and hardness without sacrificing ductility and toughness. It also increases resistance to
corrosion and scaling at elevated temperatures when introduced in suitable quantities in high-chromium
(stainless) steels.

Phosphorus (P)
• Increases strength and hardness and improves machinability. However, it adds marked brittleness or cold-
shortness to steel.

Silicon (SI)
• A deoxidizer and degasifier. It increases tensile and yield strength, hardness, forgeability and magnetic
permeability.

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 ALLOYING ELEMENTS in STEEL
Sulfur (S)
• Improves machinability in free-cutting steels, but without sufficient manganese it produces brittleness at red
heat. It decreases weldability, impact toughness and ductility.

Tantalum (TA)
• Used as stabilizing elements in stainless steels. Each has a high affinity for carbon and forms carbides, which are
uniformly dispersed throughout the steel. Thus, localized precipitation of carbides at grain boundaries is
prevented.

Titanium (TI)
• Used as stabilizing elements in stainless steels. Each has a high affinity for carbon and forms carbides, which are
uniformly dispersed throughout the steel. Thus, localized precipitation of carbides at grain boundaries is
prevented.

Tungsten (W)
• Increases strength, wear resistance, hardness and toughness. Tungsten steels have superior hot-working and
greater cutting efficiency at elevated temperatures.

Vanadium (V)
• Increases strength, hardness, wear resistance and resistance to shock impact. It retards grain growth, permitting
higher quenching temperatures. It also enhances the red-hardness properties of high-speed metal cutting tools.
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High Strength Low Alloy
(HSLA)
Structural-grade alloy steels (High
Strength Low Alloy-HSLA) are used
mainly in construction (I-beams,
channels, and angles) and
transportation industries (ships,
containers) due to their high strength.
• Can handle large amounts of
stress or need a good strength-to-
weight ratio
• These steels have a low carbon
content (0.05 – 0.25%). ** Low alloy steels : Alloying elements < 5%
High alloy steels : Alloying elements > 5%
• consisting of fine-grain ferrite as
one phase and martensite
together with austenite as a
second phase.
Micro Alloyed Steel
- Have alloying elements (0.05 to 0.15%)
- Elements (Ti, Va, Mn, Ni, etc.) are added at
the initial melt of the steel
- Have superior properties; eliminate heat
treatment, hence not required other
manufacturing process such as quenching & Alloy Steel with martensite
tempering – cheaper compared to medium-
carbon steels.
- Contains ferrite-pearlite or bainite
microstructure compare to martensite for
normal alloy steel

Micro alloyed Steel with bainite

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Stainless Steel
Stainless steel is a steel alloy with
increased corrosion resistance
compared to carbon/alloy steel.
• Common alloying ingredients
include Chromium (usually at
least 11%), Nickel, or
Molybdenum. Alloy content
often is on the order of 15-30%.

• Common applications include

food handling/processing,
medical instruments, hardware,
appliances, and
structural/architectural uses.
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Stainless Steel
Austenitic: Ferritic: Martensitic:
✓ Generally contain ✓ Contain trace amounts ✓ Contain 11-17%
18% chromium, 8% of nickel, 12-17% chromium, less
nickel and less than chromium, less than than 0.4% nickel
0.8% carbon. 0.1% carbon, along with and up to 1.2%
✓ Non-magnetic and other alloying elements, carbon.
non heat-treatable such as molybdenum, ✓ Magnetic and heat-
✓ Largest portion of aluminum or titanium. treatable steels
the global stainless ✓ These magnetic steels ✓ These are used in
steel market and are cannot be hardened knives, cutting
often used in food with heat treatment, but tools, as well as
processing can be strengthened by dental and surgical
equipment, kitchen cold working. equipment.
utensils and piping.
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Tool Steel
Tool steel is a term used for a variety of
high-hardness, abrasion-resistant steels.
Tool steels contain Tungsten, Molybdenum,
Cobalt and Vanadium in varying quantities
to increase heat resistance and durability,
ideal for cutting and drilling equipment.
❑ Specific tool applications are
dies (stamping or extrusion),
cutting, moldmaking, or impact
applications like hammers.
❑ It is also a common material
used to make knives.
❑ Tool Steels are extremely hard
and are quite often used to
form other metal products.
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Tool Steel
Tool steel products can also be
divided by their shapes and
related applications:
Long/Tubular Products include bars
and rods, rails, wires, angles, pipes,
and shapes and sections. These
products are commonly used in the
automotive and construction
sectors.
https://www.thebalance.com/steel-grades-2340174
Flat Products include plates,
sheets, coils and strips. These
materials are mainly used in
automotive parts, appliances,
packaging, shipbuilding, and
construction.
Other Products include valves,
fittings, and flanges and are
mainly used as piping materials.
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Iron & Steel
Making Processes
 IRON AND STEEL MAKING
BASIC MATERIALS
1) Iron ore
2) Limestone
3) Coke

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IRON ORES
Pellets form contains 65%
of pure iron and
about 25mm in
diameter

33
*The biggest iron ore mining are in Sabah, Serawak, and Pahang
34
Lime stone
❑ Function: to remove impurities
from molten iron.

❑ It reacts chemically with

impurities, acting like a flux which
causes the impurities to melt at
low temperature.

❑ It also combines with the

impurities to form a slag, where
this slag will float over the molten
metal.
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 Coke
❑ Coke is obtained from special grades of bituminous coal, that are
heated in temperatures up to 11500C and then cooled with water
in quenching towers.
❑ Functions:
✓ Generate high level of heat
required for the chemical
reactions in iron making.

✓ Producing CO (removes the

O2), which is then used to
reduce iron oxide to iron.
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37
Iron Making
Processes
- Furnace -
1 2
3
39
IRON MAKING 1650°C

1 IRON MAKING
10 storey height

Refractory
heat
resistance
brick

1100°C

Preheating the incoming air is necessary Send to BoF or

cast into INGOTS
because the burning coke alone does not
(<5%)
produce sufficiently high temperatures for
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these reactions to occur.
41
42
Iron Making
Processes
- Ingots -
INGOTS

1 IRON MAKING
semi finished casting products
• Traditional method of making steel.
• It is a shaping process of the molten
steel into a solid form (ingot) before
processing such as rolling or forging

• lngots may be square, rectangular, or

round in cross section, and their
weights range from a few hundred
kilograms to 36 metric tons.

44
 Casting of Ingots

1 IRON MAKING
Carbon steel that is cast into ingots can be classified into four types:
1) Killed steel
2) Semi-killed steel Rejected O2 combined with C to form
3) Capped steel CO causes porosity
4) Rimmed steel

45
Casting of ingots

1 IRON MAKING
Type of ingots depends on the method of
i) Deoxidation during steel making OR
ii) The amount of gas evolved from the
reaction of carbon with iron oxide during
solidification.

For continuous casting, only killed steel is

used.

This may be accomplished by adding

metallic deoxidizing agents to the molten
iron either before or after it is tapped or by
vacuum treatment in which the carbon
dissolved in the steel.
46
1. Ingots; Killed steel

1 IRON MAKING
Fully deoxidized (killed) as oxygen is fully
removed and no porosity.

The oxygen is made to react with

Aluminum, Silicon, Vanadium

However, a shrinkage “pipe” forms at the

top of the ingot, thus the amount of useful
metal is reduced.

Typically, killed steels are used for alloy

steels, forging steels and steels for
carburizing.

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 2. Ingots; Semi killed Steel
Partially deoxidized steel.
Variable degrees of uniformity in
composition, intermediate
between killed and rimmed
steels.
It contains some porosity
(generally in the upper central
section of the ingot), but it has
little or no pipe.
1 IRON MAKING
As a result, scrap is
reduced.
Although the piping in semi
killed steels is less, this
advantage is offset by the
presence of porosity in that
region.
However Semi-killed steels
are economical to produce.
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3.Ingots; Capped Steel

1 IRON MAKING
Has characteristics between those of
semi-killed and rimmed steel.

The addition of some deoxidizing

elements controls the rimming action
by limiting the time for gas evolution
from the outer layers of the ingot.

The gas evolved inside the ingot is in

excess of that required to counteract
solidification shrinkage, hence the ingot
has a tendency to expand.

49
3.Ingots; Capped Steel
The capping operation limits the
formation of an excessive
number of gas voids in the body
of the ingot.
This is achieved either
mechanically or chemically.
The mechanical technique
involves a heavy metal top
being placed on the ingot mould
to restrict the expansion of the
ingot.
1 IRON MAKING
For the chemical technique,
aluminum or ferrosilicon is
added to the top of the ingot
so that the top surface
solidifies rapidly and, again
restricts the expansion of the
ingot. This top portion is
discarded before further
processing.
Capped steel typically contains
more than 0.15% carbon, and
is used for sheet, strip, wire
and bars.
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4.Ingots; Rimmed Steel

1 IRON MAKING
Ingots are not fully deoxidized before
casting.

Has low amount of C (< 0.15%).

The evolved gas are controlled partially

by the addition of other element such
as aluminum.

Characterized by marked differences in

chemical composition across the
section and from top to bottom of the
Impurities tend to segregate to the
ingot.
central core.
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4.Ingots; Rimmed Steel
After solidification of the outer rim,
fine gas bubbles form in the body
of the ingot (The gases produce
blowholes along the outer rim of
the ingots) and help to counteract
the solidification shrinkage.
If not properly controlled –
blowholes may break through the
skin.
1 IRON MAKING
Therefore no pipe forms and the
yield of good quality metal is
improved.
The internal voids close up during
rolling and forging, but the clean
outer rim remains, and enhances
the quality of the steel surface
(Ductile skin with good surface
finish).
Suited for the production of steel
sheets and plates
52
Steel Making
Processes
- Furnaces -
 Steel making; Basic oxygen furnace

2 STEEL MAKING
The fastest steel making
process.
(a)180 tones of pig iron + 82 tones
of scrap are charged into a vessel;
fluxing agent (lime) are also added.
(b) Pure O2 is blown into the furnace
for about 20 min. thru’ a lance,
-under a pressure of 1250kPa.
Iron oxide is produced due to an
oxidation process.
(c) The lance is then retracted,
and the furnace is tapped by
tilting it – the slag is removed by
tilting the furnace at the
opposite direction.
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Steel making; Electric Arc Furnace

2 STEEL MAKING
1) DIRECT ARC FURNACE ❑ Source of heat is a continuous
electric arc formed between the
three graphite electrodes (750mm
in dia. and 1.5m to 2.5m in length)
and the charged metal.

❑ The capacities can range: 55 to 82

tones of steel per day.

❑ Popular for alloy steel

55
 Steel making; electric arc furnace

2 STEEL MAKING
(a) Steel scrap, carbon and limestone are dropped into the
electric furnace thru’ the open roof.

(b)The roof then is closed and the electrodes are lowered –

turned on the power, and within 2H, the metal melts. (19250C)

(c) Next, the current is shut off, the electrodes are raised, the
furnace is tilted, and the molten metal is poured into a ladle.

56
Steel making; Electric Arc Furnace

2 STEEL MAKING
2) INDIRECT ARC

❑ Single phase
❑ Suitable for copper based alloy
❑ Limited to small unit
❑ Rotate 180 degree and reverse to
optimize the heat and to avoid metal
overheating
❑ Melting via radiation.

http://www.atlasfdry.com/electricarcfurnaces.htm

57
Steel making; Induction Furnace
An induction furnace is an electrical
furnace in which the heat is applied by
induction heating of metal.
• Used for small to huge amount of
quantities. (less than one kilogram
to one hundred tones capacity)
• The metal is placed inside a large
pot (made from refractory material
and surrounded with copper coils)
• The alternating current is passed
thru’ this copper coils – form heat
and melt the metals.
• This type of electric furnace are also
used for re-melting metal for
casting.
58
Advantage of the induction furnace

2 STEEL MAKING
i.Clean process- no dust and pollutants as cupolas
ii.energy-efficient- no arc or combustion is used, capacities range from
less than one kilogram to one hundred tonnes capacity and are used
to melt iron and steel, copper, aluminium and precious metals
iii.well-controllable melting process-the temperature of the material
is no higher than required to melt it; this can prevent loss of valuable
alloying elements

Major drawback to induction furnace usage-

lack of refining capacity; charge materials must be clean of oxidation
products and of a known composition and some alloying elements
may be lost due to oxidation (and must be re-added to the melt).

59
Steel Refining
 • A process of eliminating or separating the
Steel Refining

2 STEEL MAKING
impurities, residuals from the melting
metal.
• Usually to produce a high quality, high
• The eliminating
grade, and high performance application
process occurs in
such as aircraft components
melting furnace or
ladles.
• Create a uniform
properties and a
greater consistency of
composition

61
Steel Making
Processes
- Casting -
 Steel block making-Continuous casting

3 STEEL CASTING
▪ Can produce higher quality steels at
reduced cost.
▪ The molten metal in the ladle is
cleaned, and then equalized in
temperature by blowing the nitrogen
gas
▪ The molten metal then is poured into a
reservoir (tundish – can holds up to 3
tons of metal).
▪ The molten metal travels downwards
thru’ water-cooled copper molds and
start to solidify.
▪ Additional cooling is provided with
water sprays along the travel path of the
solidifying metal.

63
▪ Before starting with the casting

3 STEEL CASTING
process, a solid starter bar, is inserted
at the bottom portion of the mold.

▪ The cooling rate develops a solidified

skin (12 to 18mm of thickness).

▪ Purpose, to support the metal itself

during travel downwards at speed ≈
25 mm/s.

64
Continuous casting Products

3 STEEL CASTING
SLAB- ≤ 3000mm x ≤ 320mm
BLOOM- ≤500mm x ≤500mm
(rectangular or square)
BILLET- ≤180mm square

65
WHAT IS NEXT?

3 STEEL CASTING
Next, these steel plates will undergo few other processes
such as:
a) cleaning by chemicals to remove the surface oxides.
b) cold rolling to improve strength and surface finish.
c) annealing.
d) coating (galvanizing or aluminizing) improve resistance to
corrosion.

66
Rolling Process
Pre processing

4
(Rolling process etc)

4 STEEL ROLLING
Flat- and
Shape-
Rolling
Processes
68
ROLLING OF
METALS

4 STEEL ROLLING
❑ Rolling is the process of reducing
the thickness or changing the
cross-section of a long workpiece
by compressive forces applied
thru’ a set of rolls.
❑ Product: Blooms, billets, slabs,
plates, or sheets
❑ Improved mechanical properties
e.g. strength and ductility.
❑ Can be done at room
temperatures and elevated
temperatures

http://www.thefabricator.com/article/bending/
plate-rolls-keep-rolling-heavier-plate
69

HOT ROLLING
❑ Product: Slabs, Blooms, Billets,
❑ Process temperature :Steel-125C,
Aluminum 450C
❑ Grain structure: coarse, non-
uniform, and porous result to the
properties of strength and
hardness but brittle.
❑ Fair surface finish.
4 STEEL ROLLING
COLD ROLLING
❑ Product: Plates > 6mm: ship hulls,
bridges, pressure vessels.
❑ Sheets < 6mm: car bodies (0.7
mm), aluminum cans (0.28 mm)
aluminum foil (0.008 mm).
❑ Process temperature :Room
temperature
❑ Grain structure: uniform and dense
❑ Very good surface finish but
requires high roll force
70
SLAB PODUCTS: PLATES VS SHEET
PLATES
❑ Generally the thickness > 6mm;
can goes up to 300mm for large
structural supports.
❑ General purpose: structural
applications such as ship hulls,
boilers, bridges, machinery.
4 STEEL ROLLING
SHEETS
❑ Generally the thickness <
6mm.
❑ General applications:
automobile and aircraft
bodies, appliances, food and
beverages containers.
71
Flat rolling

4 STEEL ROLLING
Flat-Rolling

Figure:
(a) Schematic illustration of the flat-rolling process.
(b) Friction forces acting on strip surfaces.
(c) The roll force, F, and the torque acting on the rolls. The width w of the strip usually
increases during rolling.
72
 Defects in rolled plates and sheets
❑ May present on the surfaces of rolled plates & sheets or internal structural.
❑ Effected to surface appearance as well as the strength, formability and manufacturing
characteristics.
❑ Example of sheet’s defects: scale, rust, scratches, cracks.
❑ Caused by: inclusions of impurities in the original cast material or related to material
preparation.
❑ Wavy edges: resulted due to roll bending.
❑ Cracks: resulted from poor material ductility at the rolling temperature.
❑ Alligatoring: resulted by non-uniform bulk deformation of the billet during rolling.

Figure shows a schematic illustration of typical

defects in flat rolling:
(a) wavy edges;
(b) zipper cracks in the center of the strip;
(c) edge cracks; and
(d) alligatoring.

73
▪ Sometimes a rolled sheet may not flat once it leaves the roll gap.

4 STEEL ROLLING
▪ This can be due to variations in incoming material or in the processing parameters
during rolling process.
▪ To improve the flatness, the rolled strip will undergoes through a series of leveling
rolls.

Figure shows a method of roller levelling to flatten rolled sheets.

74
 Four-High Rolling Mill

4 STEEL ROLLING
❑ The use of smaller
diameter of work rolls is to
reduce the contact area so
that reducing the interface
friction force.
❑ If worn or broken, small
rolls can be replaced at
lower cost compare to the
large ones.

Figure:
Schematic illustration of a four-high rolling-mill stand,
showing its various features. The stiffness of the
housing, the rolls, and the roll bearings are all
important in controlling and maintaining the thickness
of the rolled strip. 75
Figure (a):

4 STEEL ROLLING
Two-High Rolling Mill.
❑ Used for hot rolling.
❑ Roll diameters ranging from 0.6 to
1.4m.

Figure (b):
Three-High Rolling Mill (reversing mill)
❑ The direction of material movement is
reversed after each pass.

Figure ( c):
Four-High Rolling Mill
❑ (As been mentioned before).

76
 4 STEEL ROLLING
Figure (d):
Cluster Rolling Mill (Sendzimir or Z Mill)
❑ Suitable for cold rolling thin sheets of high-strength
metals.
❑ Common diameter of the rolls – 0.66m to 1.50 m.

77
GEOMETRIC CONSIDERATIONS

4 STEEL ROLLING
❑ Because of the forces acting on them,
rolls undergo shape changes during
rolling.
❑ As a result of roll bending, the rolled
strip tends to be thicker at its center
than at its edges.
❑ To overcome this problem – rolls were
grinded in such a way that the diameter
at the center of the roll is slightly larger
than at the edges.
❑ Thus, when the roll bends, the strip
being rolled now has a constant
thickness along its width.
Figure shows:
(a) Bending of straight cylindrical rolls, caused by the roll force.
(b) Bending of rolls ground with camber, producing a strip with
uniform thickness.
78
SPREADING OF A STRIP

4 STEEL ROLLING
❑ In rolling plates and sheets with high width-to-
thickness ratio, the width of the strip remains
effectively constant during rolling.
❑ However, with smaller ratio such as strip with a
square cross section, its width increases
significantly as it passes through the rolls.
❑ Therefore, as a conclusion, the spreading increases
with:
✓ Decreasing width-to-thickness ratio of the
entering strip – due to the reduction in the
width constant.
✓ Increasing the friction.
✓ Decreasing ratio of the roll radius to the strip
thickness. Increase in the width (spreading) of a strip
in flat rolling. Similarly, spreading can be
observed when dough is rolled with a
rolling pin. 79
Grain Structure During Hot Rolling

4 STEEL ROLLING
❑ The product of the first hot-rolling operation is called bloom or slab.
• A bloom: a square cross-section, at least 150mm on the side.
• A slab: rectangular in cross-section.
• A billet: square in cross-sectional area smaller than blooms.
❑ Blooms are processed further by shape rolling into structural shapes such as I-
beams and railroad rails.
❑ Slabs are rolled into plates and sheets.
❑ Billets are rolled into various shapes, such as round rods and bars, using shaped
rolls.
❑ Before undergo with the hot rolling process, the cast structure typically include
coarse and non-uniform grains; this structure usually is brittle and may be porous.
❑ Therefore, hot rolling process converts the cast structure to a wrought structure
with finer grains and enhanced ductility.
❑ Both of this result from the breaking up of brittle grain boundaries and the closing
up of internal defects especially porosity.
80
 Grain Structure During Hot Rolling (Cont.)

4 STEEL ROLLING
Figure shows the changes in the grain structure of cast or of large-grain wrought metals during hot
rolling.
Hot rolling is an effective way to reduce grain size in metals, for improved strength and ductility.
Cast structures of ingots or continuous casting are converted to a wrought structure by hot working.
81
Other characteristics of Rolled metals

4 STEEL ROLLING
1) Residual Stresses.
✓ Because of a non-uniform deformation of the material in the roll gap, residual stress
can develop in rolled plates and sheets.
✓ Large diameter rolls or high reduction per pass tend to deform the bulk more than
the surfaces and this is due to the higher frictional constraint at the surfaces along
the arc of contact.

Figure shows (a) Residual stresses developed in rolling with small rolls or at small reductions in thickness per pass. (b) Residual
stresses developed in rolling with large rolls or at high reductions per pass. Note the reversal of the residual stress patterns. 82
2) Dimensional tolerances.

4 STEEL ROLLING
▪ Thickness tolerances for cold-rolled sheets usually range from ±0.1 to 0.35mm,
depending on the thickness.
▪ Tolerances for hot rolled plates are much more greater because of thermal effect.
▪ Flatness tolerances for cold rolling: ± 15mm/m.
▪ Flatness tolerances for hot rolling: ± 55mm/m.

3) Surface roughness.
▪ Cold rolling can produce a very fine surface finish compared to hot rolling.
▪ Therefore, products made of cold-rolled sheets may not be require additional
finishing operation, depending on the application.

4) Gage numbers
▪ The thickness of a sheet usually identified by a gage number depending on the type of
sheet metal being classified.
▪ The smaller the number, the thicker the sheet.

83
84
 Other Rolling Processes

4 STEEL ROLLING
SHAPE
ROLLING

Figure shows the stages in

the shape rolling of an H-
section part. Various other
structural sections, such
as channels and I-beams,
are also rolled by this kind
of process.

85
 ROLL FORGING (Cross Rolling)

4 STEEL ROLLING
❑ The cross-section of a round bar is shaped by passing it through a pair of rolls
with profile grooves.
❑ Typically this process is used to produce tapered shafts, table knives, hand
tools.

86
SKEW ROLLING

4 STEEL ROLLING
▪ Typically this process is used to produce ball bearings.
▪ Round wire or rod is fed into the roll gap, and roughly spherical blanks are formed
continuously by action of the rotating rolls.

87
ROTARY TUBE PIERCING (Mannesmann

4 STEEL ROLLING
process)

Figure shows cavity formation in a solid round bar and its utilization in the rotary tube piercing process for
making seamless pipe and tubing. (The Mannesmann mill was developed in the 1880s.)

88
 TUBE ROLLING

4 STEEL ROLLING
Figure shows schematic illustration of various tube-rolling processes: (a) with fixed mandrel; (b) with moving mandrel; (c)
without mandrel; and (d) pilger rolling over a mandrel and a pair of shaped rolls. Tube diameters and thicknesses can also
be changed by other processes, such as drawing, extrusion, and spinning. 89
 4 STEEL ROLLING
TUBE ROLLING
▪ Reducing the diameter and thickness of pipes and tubing.
▪ Utilizes shaped rolls.
▪ Some of the operations can be incorporated with or without an internal mandrel.
▪ In the pilger mill, the tube shaped and are rotated continuously.
▪ During the gap cycle on the roll, the tube is advanced and rotated, starting
another cycle of tube reduction.
▪ As a result, the tube undergoes a reduction both in diameter and wall thickness.

90
RING ROLLING THREAD ROLLING

4 STEEL ROLLING
91