Heat Treatment of

Metals

Dr. Siddhalingeshwar I.G.

 Chapter 6: Lesson Schedule

01. Introduction to heat treatment process, types of heat treatment:

Annealing and its types.

02. Normalizing, hardening and its types,

03. Tempering – Austempering, martempering.

04. Surface treatment- methods of surface hardening.

05. Hardenability, Jominy end quench test, Age hardening of Al & Cu alloys.

06. Time-temperature-transformation (TTT) curves.

We heat treat metals in an attempt to optimize the mechanical and physical
properties for a given application. Most people think of heat treatment as a
process for hardening metal. This is not necessarily so, as many heat treatments
are applied to soften metal in order to allow metal working operations such as
deep drawing, cold forging and machining.

Where increased strength and wear resistance is required, hardening and

tempering treatments are given. Extremely hard steels find applications in cutting
tools where highly defined edges must be maintained and heat treatment of these
steels is a critical operation. Hard surfaces with ductile base material may be
developed by heat treatment.

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 Learning Outcomes

 Describe the classification of heat treatment processes, stages,

characteristics and applications.

 Distinguish between the different methods to determine hardenability.

 Specify a practical precipitation heat treatment in terms of temperature and

time that would give intended mechanical characteristics for a given
application.

 Explain the concept of age hardening and how it contributes to the

improvement of mechanical properties.
 Application and Background
 Practically nothing can be manufactured without heat treating, a process in
which metal is heated and cooled under tight controls to improve its properties,
performance and durability.

 Heat treating can soften metal, to improve formability.

 It can make parts harder, to improve strength.

 It can put a hard surface on relatively soft components, to increase abrasion

resistance.
 It can create a corrosion-resistant skin, to protect parts that would otherwise

corrode. And, it can toughen brittle products.

Heat treated parts are essential to the operation of automobiles, aircraft, spacecraft,
computers and heavy equipment of every kind. Saws, axes, cutting tools, bearings, gears,
axles, fasteners, camshafts and crankshafts all depend on heat treating.
 The Value Of Heat Treating
 Heat treating adds about $15 billion per year in value to metal products by
imparting specific properties that are required if parts are to function
successfully.

 It is very closely linked to the manufacture of steel products: about 80

percent of heat treated parts are made of steel. These include steel mill
output such as bar and tube, as well as parts that have been cast, forged,
welded, machined, rolled, stamped, drawn or extruded.

 It is also a vital step in the manufacture of nonferrous products. For

example, aluminum alloy automotive castings are heat treated to improve
hardness and strength; brass and bronze items are heat treated to increase
strength and prevent cracking; titanium alloy structures are heat treated to
improve strength at high temperatures.

 Miillion = 1000 x 1000 i.e. Thousand Thousands = 1,000,000 = 10 lakhs.

Billion = 1000 x 1000 x 1000 i.e. 1000 Million = 1,000,000,000 = 109
 Introduction

Heat Treatment has been defined in handbook as

a combination of heating and Cooling operations, timed and
applied to a metal or alloy in solid state in a way that will produce
desired properties, that are certain predetermined physical and
mechanical properties.

As it is expected the desired properties which are needed by heat

treatment, are mainly dependent on the microstructure of the alloy, i.e.
nature, shape, size and distribution of the phases.

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 Objectives of heat treatment

 to increase strength, harness and wear resistance (bulk hardening,

surface hardening);

 to increase ductility and softness (tempering, recrystallization

annealing);

 to increase toughness (tempering, recrystallization annealing);

 to obtain fine grain size (recrystallization annealing, full annealing,

normalising);

 to remove internal stresses induced by differential deformation by cold

working, non-uniform cooling from high temperature during casting
and welding (stress relief annealing);

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 to improve Machinability (full annealing and normalising);

 to improve cutting properties of tool steels (hardening and tempering);

 to improve surface properties (surface hardening, corrosion resistance-

stabilising treatment and high temperature resistance-precipitation
hardening, surface treatment);

 to improve electrical properties (recrystallization, tempering, age

hardening);

 to improve magnetic properties (hardening, phase transformation)

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 Heat Treatment Steps

According to the definition of the heat treatment by handbook the steps of

heat treatment can be determined as given in the following steps:

• Heating

• Soaking

• Cooling

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Heating must be controlled to the
desired temperature using
a good insulated proper heating
furnace under a suitable atmosphere
to prevent the heat dissipation and
the oxidation process.

Soaking is the essential step to ensure

that the temperature of component is
equated between its surface and its
core. This will depend on the
dimensions of the heat-treated
component.

Cooling will affect the resulted microstructure and then the obtained properties.
Accordingly, cooling will be done either in the heating furnace (by switch off the
furnace) or by leaving the heat-treated component to be cooled in a certain medium
like air, oil or water. Occasionally, salt-bath and low-temperature melted metals are
used as a medium for cooling step.
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 An overview of important heat treatments

 A broad classification of heat treatments possible are given below. Many more
specialized treatments or combinations of these are possible.

HEAT TREATMENT

BULK SURFACE

ANNEALING NORMALIZING HARDENING

THERMAL THERMO-
& CHEMICAL
TEMPERING
Full Annealing Carburizing
MARTEMPERING Flame
Recrystallization Annealing Induction Nitriding

Stress Relief Annealing AUSTEMPERING LASER Carbo-nitriding

Spheroidization Annealing Electron Beam

Heat Treatment Processes
 Heat Treatment Processes
1. Annealing
It is a heat treatment process in which a material is taken to
an elevated temperature, kept there for some time and then left to
cool, usually, in the furnace.
Purposes of Annealing
Produce specific microstructure:
•To relieve (relief) internal or residual stresses.
•To increase softness, ductility, toughness and machinability.

Stages of Annealing
Heating to required temperature, which is defined according to the objective
of the annealing.
Soaking at the required temperature by leaving the heat-treated material for
soaking of half hour for every 25 mm thickness.
Cooling step is done slowly inside the furnace by switch off the furnace after
the soaking. This will achieve about 50-100 C/hr cooling rates. 15
 Types of Annealing Processes

i. Stress relief annealing

It is used to eliminate and/or
minimize stresses arising from
plastic deformation during
machining or forming
processes. Stress relief
annealing allows these stresses
to relax.
Annealing temperatures are
relatively low so that useful
effects of cold working are not
eliminated.
The given figure shows that
heating temperature for the
stress relief annealing is
between 625-650 C

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 ii. Recrystallisation and grain growth annealing

It is used to eliminate residual and

internal stresses and create new
grains that will be coarse grains.

This process will lead to increase

the ductility and the workability.

As shown in the given figure,

heating temperature for
recrystallization is about 650-670
C

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 iii. Spheroidisation annealing

It is long soaking time heating just

below the eutectoid temperature of
the 727 C (below A1 and A1,3) by
about 25-30C. This will produce soft
spheroidite structure that could be
needed in subsequent forming
operations. It is usually performed for
plain carbon steel of more than 0.45
wt%.
The heating temperature range and
the plain carbon steel composition
that used by this process are shown in
the given figure.

It has to be noted that in the previous annealing processes types, the heat-treated
steel is heated to temperatures lower than A 1 or A1,3 which mean that the steel is
never reached to austenite region. 18
iv. Full annealing

It is heat treatment process

essentially to produce soft steels
suitable for all forming and
machining processes by heating up
the steel to reach g‑austenite phase
region, then let the steel to slow
cool inside the furnace.
The resulting are coarse pearlite and
possible proeutectoid phase
according to the carbon content of
the steel.
The heating temperature range of
the full annealing is shown in the
given figure as the following:

For hypoeutectoid steel T = A3 + (20-40) C

For hypereutectoid steel T = A1,3 + (20-40) C

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Process: heat alloy to Tanneal, for extended period of time then cool slowly.
Goals: (1) relieve stresses; (2) increase ductility and toughness; (3) produce specific
microstructure
• Stress Relief :
To reduce stress caused by:
-plastic deformation
-non-uniform cooling
-phase transform.
• Process Anneal:
To eliminate negate
effect of cold working
by recovery/recrystallization
Annealing
• Spheroidize (steels):
Make very soft steels
for good machining.
Heat just below TE
& hold for 15-25h.
• Full Anneal (steels):
Types of Make soft steels for
good forming by heating
Annealing to get g, then cool in
furnace to get coarse P.
• Normalize (steels):
Deformed steel with large grains
heat-treated to make grains small.
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 2. Normalizing

It is similar to annealing, except that during cooling stage the material is

cooled at a faster rate than annealing usually outside the furnaces in air.

Purpose of Normalizing

Generally to control more precisely a defined grain size to produce finer

pearlite mixture and finer proeutectoid phase.

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 Stages of Normalizing

In order to achieve the objectives

of normalizing, heat‑treated steel
alloys are heated up to austenite
region (austenitizing) according to
the steel composition as the
following
For hypoeutectoid steel:
T = A3 + (40-80) C

For hypereutectoid steel

T = Acm + (30-60) C
Then, the treatment is completed
by cooling into air after
predetermined soaking time of
10-20 minutes for every 10 mm
material thickness. 22
 3. Hardening

Hardening is the process of heating the steel to temperature sufficient to

produce an austenite condition (not essentially austenitizing) depending on
the carbon content of steel followed by rapid cooling at rate fast enough to
prevent the transformation to any product phase(s) differ than martensite.
This cooling type is called quenching process.

Purposes of Hardening

The main objectives of steel hardening process are inducing high

hardness and achieving high wear-resistance for steels. Hardening is
done to all heavy-duty carbon steel machines parts and almost all
machine parts made of all steel types.
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Stages of Hardening
In order to achieve the
objectives of hardening, plain
carbon steels are heated up to
temperature depending on the
steel composition as the
following:
For hypoeutectoid steel:
T = A3 + (20-40) C
For hypereutectoid steel
T = A1,3 + (20-40) C

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 Heat Treatment processes
 Case hardening
 Carburizing
 Nitriding
 Carbonitriding
 Chromizing and Boronizing
 Precipitation hardening
 Solution treatment (-phase conversion)
 quenching
 precipitation treatment (aging)
 Furnaces for Heat Treatment
 Fuel fire furnaces
 gas

 oil

 Electric furnaces
 batch furnaces

 box furnaces - door

 car-bottom furnaces - track for moving large parts
 bell-type furnaces - cover/bell lifted by gantry crane
 continuous furnaces
 Furnaces for Heat Treatment

 Vacuum furnaces
 Salt-bath furnaces
 Fluidized-bed furnaces

Some of the furnaces have special atmosphere requirements,

such as carbon- and nitrogen- rich atmosphere.
 Quenching Mediums
 Water Quenching
Water is the most common quenching medium.  It is inexpensive, convenient to use,
and provides very rapid cooling.  It is used primarily for low carbon steels where the
heat must be extracted from the steel rapidly in order to obtain good hardness and
strength.  Although water provides a sudden, drastic quench, it can cause internal
stresses, distortion, or cracking.  For best results, water should be used at room
temperature.
 Oil Quenching
Oil is more gentle than water and is used for more critical parts which have thin
sections or sharp edges.  Since oil is more gentle it develops less internal stresses,
distortions, or cracking.  However, oil does generally does not produce as hard or
strong of a steel as water.  Therefore, the decision must be made by the designer of
a part which is more important, hardness and strength or minimizing cracking and
distortion.
 Quenching Mediums
 Air Quenching

Air quenching is much less drastic than either oil or water.  High speed fans blow
room  temperature air over the steel parts.  The slower rate decreases the
distortion, internal stress and cracking.  However, it will not be as strong unless
special alloys have been added into the metals.  Therefore, air quenching is
usually used on high alloy metals such as chromium and molybdenum.
 Brine Quenching

Brine is water with 5 - 10% salt added.  The speed is slightly faster than water and
therefore more drastic in regards to cracking and distortion.  It is also effective
at removing surface scale from the parts, since the salt causes mini 'explosions'
on the part's surface that blows off the scale.  
 Surface Hardening Methods

 Flame hardening
 Induction heating
 High-frequency resistance heating
 Electron beam heating
 Laser beam heating
 Surface Hardening Methods

Induction heating

High frequency
Resistance heating
 Induction hardening

 Induced eddy currents heat

the surface of the steel very
quickly and is quickly followed
by jets of water to quench the
component.
 A hard outer layer is created
with a soft core. The slideways
on a lathe are induction
hardened.
 Flame hardening

 Gas flames raise the

temperature of the outer
surface above the upper
critical temp. The core will
heat by conduction.
 Water jets quench the
component.
 Case Hardening

Case hardening is a process used with mild steel to give a hard skin

The metal is heated to cherry red and is dipped in Carbon powder. It

is then repeated 2-3 more times before Quenching the metal in
water to harden the skin.

This allows the surface of mild steel to be able to subject to wear but
the soft core is able to subject to Sudden shock e.g. the tool holders

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 Case hardening

 Hardening of the surface

 Improves resistance to surface indentation, fatigue, wear
 Gear teeth
 Cams, Shafts, Bearings, Fasteners, Pins
 Automotive clutch plates
 Tools and dies
 Case Hardening - Carburizing

Carburizing involves placing the mild steel in box packed

with charcoal granules, heated to 950 º C and allowing the mild
steel to soak for several hours.
It achieves the same purpose of case hardening.

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 Case Hardening - Nitriding

Nitriding is a heat treating process that diffuses nitrogen into the surface of a

metal to create a case hardened surface. These processes are most commonly
used on low-carbon, low-alloy steels, however they are also used on medium
and high-carbon steels, titanium, aluminum and molybdenum.
Typical applications include gears, crankshafts, camshafts, cam
followers, valve parts, extruder screws, die-casting tools,
forging dies, extrusion dies, firearm components, injectors and plastic-
mold tools.
The processes are named after the medium used to donate. The three main

methods used are: gas nitriding, salt bath nitriding, and plasma nitriding.

GAS NITRIDING is a case-hardening process whereby nitrogen is introduced
into the surface of a solid ferrous alloy by holding the metal at a suitable
temperature (below Ac1, for ferritic steels) in contact with a nitrogenous gas,
usually ammonia. Quenching is not required for the production of a hard case.
The nitriding temperature for all steels is between 495 and 565 °C (925 and
1050 °F).

PLASMA, OR ION, NITRIDING, is a method of surface hardening using glow

discharge technology to introduce nascent (elemental) nitrogen to the surface
of a metal part for subsequent diffusion into the material. In a vacuum, high-
voltage electrical energy is used to form a plasma, through which nitrogen ions
are accelerated to impinge on the workpiece. This ion bombardment heats the
workpiece, cleans the surface, and provides active nitrogen. Ion nitriding
provides better control of case chemistry and uniformity and has other
advantages, such as lower part distortion than conventional (gas) nitriding. A
key difference between gas and ion nitriding is the mechanism used to
generate nascent nitrogen at the surface of the work.
 Case Hardening - Carbonitriding

Carbonitriding is a metallurgical surface modification technique that is used to

increase the surface hardness of a metal, thereby reducing wear. During the
process, atoms of carbon and nitrogen diffuse interstitially into the metal,
creating barriers to slip, increasing the hardness and modulus near the surface.

Carbonitriding is often applied to inexpensive, easily machined low carbon steel

to impart the surface properties of more expensive and difficult to work grades of
steel. Surface hardness of carbonitrided parts ranges from 55 to 62 HRC.

Certain pre-industrial case hardening processes include not only carbon-rich

materials such as charcoal, but nitrogen-rich materials such as urea, which implies
that traditional surface hardening techniques were a form of carbonitriding.
The ideal properties for heat treated steel is hardness, strength,
ductility and small grain size.
The selection process comes down to:
If a steel must be hard and strong, quench rapidly.  However, it will be
brittle.
If a steel must have great ductility for machining, cool slowly.  However,
will not be very strong.
If the steel must have both strength and ductility, alloys can be added,
but costs will increase.
 Hardenability

 Hardenability is the ability of a steel to partially or completely

transform from austenite to some fraction of martensite at a given

depth below the surface, when cooled under a given condition.

 Hardness is a measure of a material's resistance to localized surface

deformation, whereas hardenability is a measure of the depth to

which a ferrous alloy may be hardened by the formation of martensite.

 Hardenability

 Hardenability should not be confused with the ability to obtain high hardness. A
material with low hardenability may have a higher surface hardness compared to
another sample with higher hardenability.
 A material with a high hardenability can be cooled relatively slowly to produce
50% martensite (& 50% pearlite).
 Hardenability of plain carbon steel can be increased by alloying with most
elements (it is to be noted that this is an added advantage as alloying is usually
done to improve other properties).
Typical hardness test survey made along a diameter of a quenched cylinder
 Schematic of Jominy End Quench Test

Jominy hardenability test Variation of hardness along a Jominy bar

(schematic for eutectoid steel)
 T T T diagram

 TTT diagram - The time-temperature-transformation diagram

describes the time required at any temperature for a phase
transformation to begin and end.
 Isothermal transformation - When the amount of a transformation
at a particular temperature depends on the time permitted for the
transformation.

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Isothermal transformation diagrams (also known as time-temperature-
transformation diagrams) are plots of temperature versus time (usually on a
logarithmic scale).
They are generated from percentage transformation-vs logarithm of time
measurements, and are useful for understanding the transformations of an alloy
steel that is cooled isothermally.
An isothermal transformation diagram is only valid for one specific
composition of material, and only if the temperature is held constant during the
transformation, and strictly with rapid cooling to that temperature.
Though usually used to represent transformation kinetics for steels, they also
can be used to describe the kinetics of crystallization in ceramic or other
materials.
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The time-temperature-transformation (TTT) diagram for an eutectoid
steel.

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The TTT diagram for AISI 1080 steel (0.79%C, 0.76%Mn) austenitised at 900°C
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The time-temperature-transformation (TTT) diagram for an eutectoid
steel.

©2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning™ is a trademark used herein under license.

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 Application of TTT Diagrams

TTT diagram can be used to specify the nature of the final microstructure and
approximate percentages of the phases that are existing at room temperature
according to certain heat treatment path.

Consider three case of heat treatment of Fe-0.77% C eutectoid steel rapid

cooled from preheated temperature of 760 C (>727C) as follows:

a) Rapidly cool to 350 C, hold for 104 s and quench to room temperature;
b) Rapidly cool to 250 C, hold for 100 s and quench to room temperature;
c) Rapidly cool to 650 C, hold for 20 s, rapidly cool to 400 C, hold for 103 s and quench
to room temperature;

In each case, the initial cooling is rapid enough to prevent any no required transformation.

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a)At 350 C  transforms to B;
the reaction starts after 10 s
and ends at 500 s. By 104 s,
100% of the specimen is
bainite and no more
transformation is possible.
b)At 250 C, at 100 s the
specimen is still 100% . As
the specimen is cooled, M is
started at 215 C.
Transformation is complete
by the time until room
temperature is reached at
100% martensite.
c)At 650 C, P begins after 7 s;
after 20 s 50% of  is
transformed to P. During
rapid cool to 400 C little of
the remaining  transforms to
either P and/or B. At 400 C
and after 103 s, the remaining
50%  will have completely
transformed to bainite
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Thank you