Mechanical Behavior of

Materials
Ao

Balanced Rock, Arches

National Park
 Questions to Think About

• Stress and strain: What are they and why are they used instead of load
and deformation?
 Elastic behavior: When loads are small, how much deformation
occurs? What materials deform least?
 Plastic behavior: At what point do dislocations cause permanent
deformation? What materials are most resistant to permanent
deformation?
 Toughness and ductility: What are they and how do we measure
them?

2
 Chapter Outline

Introduction to mechanical behavior of metals,

Stress-strain diagrams to show ductile and brittle behavior of materials.
Linear and non-linear elastic behavior and properties.
Mechanical properties in plastic range.
Effect of strain rate and temperature on tensile properties.
Phenomenon of Fatigue, Types of fatigue loading with examples.
Fatigue Testing and S.N. diagram.
Factors affecting fatigue life.
Introduction to the phenomenon of creep, explanation with examples.
Stages of creep with detailed explanation, Creep properties.
3
 Learning Outcomes

 Understand the significance of Hooke’s law with respect to assessing

the mechanical behavior of materials and note the conditions under
which it is valid.
 Given an engineering stress strain diagram, compute modulus of
elasticity, yield strength, tensile strength and estimate the percent
elongation.
 Compare and contrast elastic deformation and plastic deformation and
distinguish between slip and twinning mechanisms of plastic
deformation.
 Learning Outcomes

 From a fatigue plot for given material, compute the fatigue lifetime (at
a specified stress level), fatigue strength (at a specified number of
cycles).
 Discuss the factors that affect fatigue life and suggest suitable remedies
to overcome.
 Discuss the significance of creep rate while choosing a material for high
temperature application.
 Given a creep plot for some material, compute steady state creep rate
and rupture life and comment on the suitability of the material for
given application.
 Introduction

 Mechanical behavior of a material: Reflects the relationship between its

response or deformation to an applied load or force;

 Important mechanical properties: Strength, Hardness, Ductility, Stiffness;

 Mechanical properties are determined by performing carefully designed lab

experiments that replicate as nearly as possible the service conditions.

 Factors to be considered during mechanical tests: Nature of applied load (tensile,

compressive, or shear), Load duration (constant or fluctuating with time, applied

for fractions of seconds, or many years), Environmental conditions (e.g.,
temperature).

 Consistency is needed when performing the tests and interpreting their results.

6
 Engineering stress

• Tensile stress, s: • Shear stress, t:

Ft Ft F

Area, A Area, A Fs

Fs
Ft Fs
Ft  Ft
 Ao F
Ao
original area
before loading Stress has units:
N/m2 or lb/in2
7
 Stress states

• Simple tension: cable

F F
Ao = cross sectional
Area (when unloaded)
F
  
Ao
• Simple shear: drive shaft
Ski lift (photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
M Fs Ao
Ac 
Fs
 
M Ao
2R
Note: t = M/AcR here.
8
 Other stress states

• Simple compression:

Ao

Canyon Bridge, Los Alamos, NM

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)

F Note: compressive
Balanced Rock, Arches  structure member
National Park
(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
Ao

9
 Other stress states

• Bi-axial tension: • Hydrostatic compression:

Pressurized tank Fish under water (photo courtesy

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
P.M. Anderson)
 > 0

z > 0 s h< 0
10
Modes of loading and states of stress

11
12
 Deformations occurring in structural
components subjected to axial loading.

The change in length of the diagonal stays

was carefully accounted for in the design
of this cable stayed bridge.

13
The definitions of stress, strain and elastic moduli.

14
 Engineering strain

• Tensile strain: • Lateral strain:

/2
  
Lo L
Lo L 
wo wo
/2
• Shear strain: L/2 L/2
/2

Strain is always
 = tan  dimensionless.
/2 - 

/2 /2
15
 True Stress

True
F
T  Corrected
Ai
F  Engineering
E 
Ao


Because of the geometry of the neck a triaxial stress state occurs and
the corrected axial stress is really less than the true stress.

16
 True Strain

li  lo li
E  T  ln
lo lo

Before necking occurs engineering and true stress and strain are related as follows.
 T   E (1   E )  T  ln(1   E )
A approximation of the relationship between true stress and
true strain in the region between yield and necking is

 T  K Tn
where K and n are material constants.

17
True stress: load divided by actual area in the necked-down region, continues to rise to the
point of fracture, in contrast to the engineering stress.
18
 Elastic deformation

1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload

bonds
stretch

return to
initial

F
F Linear-
elastic

Elastic means reversible! Non-Linear-

elastic

19
 Elastic Deformation

 The degree to which a structure deforms or strains depends on the magnitude of

an imposed stress. For most metals that are stressed in tension and at relatively

low levels, stress and strain are proportional to each other through the relationship

  E
This is known as Hooke’s law, and the constant of proportionality E (Gpa) is

the modulus of elasticity, or Young’s modulus.

20
 Thomas Young

Thomas Young (13 June 1773 – 10 May 1829) was an

English polymath.
Young made notable scientific contributions to the fields of vision,
light, solid mechanics, energy, physiology, language, musical
harmony, and Egyptology.
•Young described the characterization of elasticity that came to be known as
Young's modulus, denoted as E, in 1807, and further described it in his Course of
Lectures on Natural Philosophy and the Mechanical Arts;
•The Young's modulus relates the stress (pressure) in a body to its associated
strain (change in length as a ratio of the original length); that is, stress = E ×
strain, for a uniaxially loaded specimen.
•Young's modulus is independent of the component under investigation; that is,
it is an inherent material property (the term modulus refers to an inherent
material property). 

22
 Elastic Deformation

For most typical metals the magnitude of this modulus ranges between 45

GPa , for magnesium, and 407 GPa , for tungsten.

The moduli of elasticity are slightly higher for ceramic materials, which range

between about 70 and 500 GPa.

Polymers have modulus values that are smaller than both metals and

ceramics, and which lie in the range 0.007 and 4 GPa.

23
Room-Temperature Elastic and Shear Moduli, and Poisson’s Ratio for Various
Materials

24
 Young’s moduli: Comparison
Graphite
Metals Composites
Ceramics Polymers
Alloys /fibers
1200 Semicond
10 00 Diamond
800
600
400 Tungsten
Molybdenum
Si carbide
Al oxide
Si nitride
Carbon fibers only E ceramics
Steel, Ni CFRE(|| fibers)*
E(GPa) 200 Tantalum
Platinum
Cu alloys
<111>
Si crystal
<100> Aramid fibers only > E metals
10 0 Zinc, Ti
80
>> E polymers
Silver, Gold AFRE(|| fibers)*
Aluminum Glass -soda Glass fibers only
60
Magnesium, G FRE(|| fibers)*
40 Tin
Concrete

10 9 Pa 20 GFRE*
CFRE * Based on data in Table B2,
G raphite G FRE( fibers)* Callister 6e.
10
8 CFRE( fibers) * Composite data based on
6 AFRE( fibers) *
Polyester reinforced epoxy with 60 vol%
4 PET
PS
of aligned carbon (CFRE),
2 PC Epoxy only aramid (AFRE), or
PP
glass (GFRE) fibers.
1 HDP E
0.8
0.6 Wood( grain)
PTF E
0.4

0.2 LDPE
25
26
 Elastic Deformation (Cont.)

 Elastic deformation: Deformation in which stress and strain are

proportional.

 E may be thought of stiffness (material’s resistance to elastic deformation).

 The greater E is, the stiffer the material (or the smaller the elastic strain

resulting from application of given stress).

 Elastic deformation is nonpermanent.

27
 Elastic Deformation (Cont.)

Types:
 Linear elastic deformation:
 Slope = Young’s modulus.
 Non-linear elastic behavior:
 Tangent or secant modulus.

28
Linear & Non-linear elastic behavior

29
 Elastic Deformation (Cont.)

 Magnitude of E is a measure of the resistance to separation of adjacent

atoms (i.e., interatomic forces).
 E is proportional to the slope of the interatomic force-separation curve.

30
As temperature increases, E decreases

31
 Elastic Properties of Materials

 E, G (For most metals, equals 0.4 E)

 Poisson’s ratio():

 Ratio between lateral and axial strains.

 For metals, it ranges from 0.25 to 0.35.

 E = 2G(1+)
 Many materials are elastically anisotropic.

32
 Poisson’s Ratio

The strain in the y-direction (negative) divided by a strain in the x-direction,

DUE TO A LOAD IN THE X-DIRECTION.

F F
y
z y
  
z x x x

Typical  values range from near 0 to 0.5.

Most metals are between 0.25 and 0.30
33
 Plastic (permanent) deformation

(at lower temperatures, T < Tmelt/3)

• Simple tension test:
Elastic+Plastic
tensile stress,  at larger stress

Elastic
initially
permanent (plastic)
after load is removed

p engineering strain, 

p lastic strain
34
 Plastic Deformation

 Elastic deformation persists only to strains of about 0.005. Beyond this point,

Hook’s law is not valid and plastic deformation occurs.

 Plastic deformation: The breaking of bonds with original atom neighbors

forming bonds with new neighbors as large numbers of atoms or molecules

move relative to one another. Upon removal of the stress, atoms do not return

to their original positions.

 For crystalline material, deformation is accomplished by slipping.

35
 Permanent Deformation

 Permanent deformation for metals is accomplished by means of a process

called slip, which involves the motion of dislocations.

 Most structures are designed to ensure that only elastic deformation results

when stress is applied.

 A structure that has plastically deformed, or experienced a permanent

change in shape, may not be capable of functioning as intended.

36
 Tensile properties :
(1) Yielding and yield strength

 Most structures are designed to ensure that only elastic deformation will
result when a stress is applied. THUS, need to determine Yield.
 Proportional limit (Yielding point): Initial departure from linearity of the
stress-strain curve.
 Yield strength determination:
 For materials with linear elastic regions: Use strain offset region ( =
0.002).
 For materials with nonlinear elastic region: Use stress required to produce
some amount of strain (e.g.  = 0.005).

37
Elastic & plastic deformation

38
 (1) Yielding and yield strength (Cont.)

For some steels, Yield point phenomena exists.

 Upper yield point: Plastic deformation is initiated with an actual decrease

in stress.
 Lower yield point: Continued deformation fluctuates slightly about some

constant stress value.

 Yield strength: Average stress associated with lower yield point (well

defined and insensitive to testing procedures) & is a measure of material

resistance to plastic deformation.

39
 Yield strength: Comparison
Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
20 00
Steel (4140) qt
y(ceramics)
10 00 >>y(metals)
y (MPa)

Ti (5Al-2.5Sn) a
700
600
W (pure)
Cu (71500) cw
>> y(polymers)
500 Mo (pure)

in ceramic matrix and epoxy matrix composites, since

since in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.
Steel (4140) a

in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

400
Steel (1020) cd
300
Al (6061) ag
,

Room T values

Hard to measure,
200 Steel (1020) hr
Hard to measure

¨
Ti (pure) a
Ta (pure)
Cu (71500) hr
Yield strength,

Based on data in Table B4,

100 Callister 6e.
dry
70 PC a = annealed
60 Al (6061) a Nylon 6,6 hr = hot rolled
50 PET
PVC
humid ag = aged
40
PP cd = cold drawn
30 HDPE cw = cold worked
20 qt = quenched & tempered

LDPE
Tin (pure)
10
40
 (2) Tensile strength

 Tensile strength: Stress at the maximum stress that can be sustained by

structure at tension. If this stress is applied and maintained, fracture

results.

 Before tensile stress is reached, deformation is uniform. At tensile stress,

necking results. After tensile stress, deformation occurs at necking.

41
Typical engineering stress-strain Behavior to fracture.

42
43
• Localized deformation of a ductile material during a tensile test produces a
necked region;
• The image shows necked region in a fractured sample.
45
The stress-strain curve for an aluminum alloy.

(c)2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning™ is a trademark used herein
under license.
 Strain Testing
• Tensile specimen • Tensile test machine

load cell
Often 12.8 mm x 60 mm

specimen
extensometer

moving cross head

gauge (portion of sample with
=
length reduced cross section)

Adapted from Fig. 6.3, Callister 6e.

• Other types:
-compression: brittle materials (e.g., concrete)
-torsion: cylindrical tubes, shafts.
47
 (2) Tensile strength (Cont.)

 Metals: occurs when noticeable necking starts.

 Ceramics: occurs when crack propagation starts.

 Polymers: occurs when polymer backbones are aligned and about to break.

 Yield strength (not tensile stress) is used to cite strength of material since at

tensile stress, the material experiences so much plastic deformation that it

became useless.

48
 Tensile strength: Comparison
Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
5000 C fibers
Aramid fib
TS (ceram)
3000 E-glass fib
~TS (met)
(MPa)

20 00 Steel (4140) qt
AFRE (|| fiber)
10 00 W (pure)
Ti (5Al-2.5Sn) a
Diamond GFRE (|| fiber) ~ TS (comp)
Steel (4140) a CFRE (|| fiber)
Cu (71500) cw Si nitride
Cu (71500) hr
Steel (1020) Al oxide >> TS (poly)
300 Al (6061) ag
Ti (pure) a Room T values
Tensile strength, TS

200 Ta (pure)
Al (6061) a Based on data in Table B4,
100 Si crystal wood(|| fiber)
<100> Nylon 6,6 Callister 6e.
Glass-soda PC PET
40 Concrete
PVC GFRE ( fiber) a = annealed
PP CFRE ( fiber)
30 hr = hot rolled
AFRE( fiber)
HDPE ag = aged
20 Graphite
LDPE cd = cold drawn
cw = cold worked
10 qt = quenched & tempered
AFRE, GFRE, & CFRE =
aramid, glass, & carbon
wood ( fiber) fiber-reinforced epoxy
composites, with 60 vol%
fibers.
1
49
Yield strength and tensile strength vary with thermal and mechanical treatment,
impurity levels, etc. ; Variability related to behavior of dislocations (Elastic moduli are
relatively insensitive).

Yield and tensile strengths and modulus of elasticity: Decrease with increasing
temperature.

Ductility increases with temperature. 50

Room-Temperature Mechanical Properties (in Tension) for Various Materials

51
 (3) Ductility

 A measure of degree of plastic deformation sustained at fracture.

 Importance:

 It indicates the degree to which a structure will deform plastically

before fracture.
 It specifies degree of allowable deformation during fabrication

operations.
Brittle material:
Experiences very little or no plastic deformation upon fracture.
Having a fracture strain of less than 5%.
Most metals possess at least a moderate degree of ductility at room
temperature. Some become brittle as temperature is lowered.
52
 smaller %EL
Engineering (brittle if %EL<5%)
tensile
stress,  larg er %EL
(ductile if
%EL>5%)

Engineering tensile strain, 

53
 (3) Ductility (Cont.)

l f  l0
% EL  100
l0 Ao
Lo Af Lf
A0  A f
% RA   100
A0
%AR and %EL are often comparable:
--Reason: crystal slip does not change material volume.
--%AR > %EL possible if internal voids form in neck.

54
 Ductile Vs Brittle Materials
 Only Ductile materials will exhibit necking.
 Ductile if EL%>8% (approximately)
 Brittle if EL% < 5% (approximately)

AX X
C
Engineering Stress

B
X

D X
Brittle Ductile
A&B C&D

Engineering Strain
55
 Tensile strength Yield strength

56
 (4) Resilience

 The capacity of a material to absorb energy when it is deformed elastically

and then, upon unloading, to have this energy recovered.

 Area under the elastic part of the stress strain curve represents energy
absorption per unit volume.

 Ur = 0.5 (y)2 / E

 Resilient materials (used in springs) are those having high yield strengths
and low moduli of elasticity.

57
 Resilience, Ur

Sy Su
Engineering Stress, S=P/Ao

ey X
Ur   S de
o
Sy e y

E 2
Sy 2

2E
ey
Engineering Strain, e = DL/Lo)
Mat. Sc. & Metallurgy by IGS 58
Determination of modulus of resilience

59
 (5) Toughness

 Measure of the ability of a material to absorb energy up to fracture (Energy

to break a unit volume of material)

 Tough material should be both strong and ductile.

 Factors affecting toughness: Specimen geometry and manner of load

application.

 Static (low strain rate) loads: Toughness is the area under the stress-strain
curve till fracture.

 Dynamic (High strain rate) load: When notch (point of stress

concentration) is present, notch toughness is assessed by impact test.

60
 Toughness, Ut

Su
Engineering Stress, S=P/Ao

Sy
X
ef
Ut   S de
o
(S y  Su ) EL%
  
2  100 

Engineering Strain, e = DL/Lo)

Mat. Sc. & Metallurgy by IGS 61
 Toughness
Lower toughness: ceramics
Higher toughness: metals
Toughness is the
ability to absorb
energy up to
fracture (energy per
unit volume of
material).

A “tough” material
has strength and
ductility.

Approximated by
the area under the
stress-strain curve.

62
 • Energy to break a unit volume of material
• Approximate by the area under the stress-strain curve.

Engineering smaller toughness (ceramics)

tensile larg er toughness
stress,  (metals, PMCs)

smaller toughness-
unreinforced
polymers

Engineering tensile strain, 

21
 Toughness & Resilience

 Toughness: A measure of the ability of a material to absorb energy

without fracture. (J/m3 or N.mm/mm3= MPa)
 Resilience: A measure of the ability of a material to absorb energy
without plastic or permanent deformation.

(J/m3 or N.mm/mm3= MPa)

 Note: Both are determined as

energy/unit volume

64
65
 (6) Hardness

 A measure of a material’s resistance to localized plastic deformation.

 Large hardness means:
 Resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in compression.
 Better wear properties.
 Hardness tests performed more frequently than any other mechanical tests:
 Simple and inexpensive.
 Nondestructive.
 Other mechanical properties can be inferred from the test (like tensile
strength).

66
 Hardness: Various Definitions

 Resistance to permanent indentation under static or dynamic loads -

indentation hardness.

 Energy absorbed under impact loads - rebound hardness.

 Resistance to scratching - scratch hardness.

 Resistance to abrasion - wear hardness.

 Resistance to cutting or drilling - machinability.

67
 apply known force measure size
e.g., (1 to 1000g) of indent after
10mm sphere removing load

Smaller indents
D d mean larger
hardness.

most brasses easy to machine cutting nitrided

plastics Al alloys steels file hard tools steels diamond

increasing hardness

68
Chart of different materials ranked by hardness (Knoop Hardness)
 Vickers

Knoop

Rockwell

Brinell
Mat. Sc. & Metallurgy by IGS 70
 Johan August Brinell

Johan August Brinell (21 November 1849 – 17 November 1925) was

a Swedish Mechanical Engineer. Brinell is noted as the creator of a method for
quantifying the surface hardness of materials, now known as the Brinell
hardness test. His name is also commemorated in the description of a failure
mechanism of material surfaces known as Brinelling.

71
 Hugh Rockwell Stanley Rockwell

Hugh M. Rockwell (1890–1957) and Stanley P. Rockwell (1886–1940)

from Connecticut in the United States co-invented the "Rockwell hardness
tester," a differential-depth machine. They applied for a patent on July 15,
1914. The requirement for this tester was to quickly determine the effects of
heat treatment on steel bearing races.
72
The Vickers hardness test was developed in 1921 by Robert L. Smith and George
E. Sandland at Vickers Ltd as an alternative to the Brinell method to measure
the hardness of materials. The Vickers test is often easier to use than other
hardness tests since the required calculations are independent of the size of the
indenter, and the indenter can be used for all materials irrespective of hardness.
The unit of hardness given by the test is known as the Vickers Pyramid
Number (HV) or Diamond Pyramid Hardness (DPH). 
73
Hardness Testers

74
Conversion of
Hardness Scales

Standard Hardness Conversion

Tables for Metals Relationship
Among Brinell Hardness, Vickers
Hardness, Rockwell Hardness,
Superficial Hardness, Knoop
Hardness, and Scleroscope Hardness

76
Correlation between
Hardness and Tensile
Strength

• Both hardness and tensile

strength are indicators of a
metal’s resistance to plastic
deformation.
• For cast iron, steel and
brass, the two are roughly
proportional.
• Tensile strength (psi) =
500*BHR
77
http://www.zx52.com/relationship-
between-hardness-and-strength-tensile-
strength-yield-strength.html

78
 Factors affecting stress-Strain behavior

Mechanical properties are sensitive to:

 Prior deformation

 Presence of impurities

 Prior heat treatment

 Temperature:

Yield and tensile strengths decreases with temperature.

Ductility increases with temperature.

80
Effect of temp. on stress-strain behavior of iron.

81
Fatigue, Creep & Fracture
Fatigue

83
 Fatigue

 A form of failure that occurs in structures subjected to dynamic and

fluctuating stresses;

 Failure occurs at stress levels lower than yield or tensile stresses for

static loads;

 It occurs after a lengthy period of repeated stress of strain cycling;

 Comprise approximately 90% of metallic failures; Polymers and

ceramics are also susceptible.

FATIGUE is the progressive, localized, and permanent structural damage that occurs

when a material is subjected to cyclic or fluctuating strains at nominal stresses that

have maximum values less than (and often much less than) the static yield strength

of the material.
The process of fatigue failure can be divided into different stages, which, from
the standpoint of metallurgical processes, can be divided into five stages:

1. Cyclic plastic deformation prior to fatigue crack initiation;

2. Initiation of one or more microcracks;

3. Propagation or coalescence of microcracks to form one or more microcracks;

4. Propagation of one or more macrocracks;

5. Final failure.
This division is defined by the characterization of the underlying fatigue damage
of a material. It also clearly defines the requirement of plastic deformation for the
onset of crack initiation;

In general, three simultaneous conditions are required for the occurrence of
fatigue damage: cyclic stress, tensile stress, and plastic strain;

If any one of these three conditions is not present, a fatigue crack will not initiate
and propagate;

The plastic strain resulting from cyclic stress initiates the crack; and the tensile
stress (which may be localized tensile stress caused by compressive loads) promotes
crack propagation.
Fatigue is an important form of behavior in all materials including metals,

plastics, rubber and concrete;

 All rotating machine parts are subjected to alternating stresses;

Ex: aircraft wings are subjected to repeated loads, oil and gas pipes are often

subjected to static loads but the dynamic effect of temperature variation will
cause fatigue;

Because of the difficulty of recognizing fatigue conditions, fatigue failure

comprises a large percentage of the failures occurring in engineering.

 To avoid stress concentrations, rough surfaces and tensile residual stresses,
fatigue specimens must be carefully prepared;

 It is brittle-like failure even in normally ductile metals;

 It occurs by initiation and propagation of cracks;

 Ordinarily, fracture surface is perpendicular to direction of applied tensile stress;

 Springs deflecting to various amounts, aircraft wings subjected to repeated gust

loads, rubber tyres deforming repeatedly with each revolution of the wheel etc.
can all lead to failure by fatigue.
 Types of Fatigue loading

 Completely reversed cycle of stress; for ex. Bending of steel wire

continuously in either directions leads to alternate tensile and compressive
stresses on its surface layers.

 Repeated stress cycle; for ex. a spring subjected to repeated tension as in a

toy.

 Irregular or random stress cycle; for ex. an aircraft wing subjected to wind
loads.

The applied stress may be axial (tension-compression), flexural (bending), or

torsional (twisting) in nature.
 Definitions and Concepts

Constant amplitude stressing

Mean stress
Stress amplitude (half of the
range) variation about the
mean
Stress ratio R, Amplitude ratio
Completely reversed stressing, R=-1
 Fatigue Data

The most important fatigue data for engineering designs are the S-N curves,
which is the Stress-Number of Cycles curves.

In a fatigue test, a specimen is subjected to a cyclic stress of a certain form

and amplitude and the number of cycles to failure is determined.

The number of cycles, N, to failure is a function of the stress amplitude, S.

A plot of S versus N is called the S-N curve.

 S-N Curves

 A specimen is subjected to stress cycling at a maximum stress amplitude; the

number of cycles to failure is determined.
 This procedure is repeated on other specimens at progressively decreasing
stress amplitudes.
 Data are plotted as stress S versus number N of cycles to failure for all the
specimen.
 Typical S-N behavior: the higher the stress level, the fewer the number of cycles.
 Fatigue Limit

 For some iron and titanium alloys, the S-N curve becomes horizontal at higher
number of cycles N;
 Essentially it has reached a fatigue limit, and below this stress level the material
will not fatigue;
 The fatigue limit represents the largest value of fluctuating stress that will not
cause failure for an infinite number of cycles.
 The point at which the curve flatters out is termed as fatigue limit and is well
below the normal yield stress;
 The significance of the fatigue limit is that if the material is loaded below this
stress, then it will not fail, regardless of the number of times it is loaded;
 Materials such as aluminium, copper and magnesium do not show a fatigue
limit; therefore they will fail at any stress and number of cycles;

Other important terms are fatigue strength and fatigue life;

 The fatigue strength can be defined as the stress that produces failure in a
given number of cycles usually 107 ;

 The fatigue life can be defined as the number of cycles required for a
material to fail at a certain stress.
Fatigue life: indicates how long (no. of cycles) a
component survives a particular stress.

Fatigue strength: is applicable to a component with No endurance limit. It is the

maximum stress for which fatigue will not occur at a particular number of cycles, in
general, 108 cycles for metals.
Endurance ratio: the endurance limit is approximately ¼ to ½ the tensile strength.

endurance limit (fatigue strenght)

Endurance ratio   0.25  0.5
tensile strength
 Fatigue: Crack initiation& propagation
Three stages:

1. Crack initiation in the areas of stress concentration (near stress raisers);

2. Incremental crack propagation;
3. Rapid crack propagation after crack reaches critical size.

The total number of cycles to failure is the sum of cycles at the first and the second stages:

N f = Ni + N p
Nf : Number of cycles to failure
Ni : Number of cycles for crack initiation
Np : Number of cycles for crack propagation

High cycle fatigue (low loads): Ni is relatively high. With increasing stress level, Ni decreases and
Np dominates.
 Fatigue Failure

 Fatigue fracture results from the presence of fatigue cracks, usually initiated by

cyclic stresses, at surface imperfections such as machine marking and slip

steps.

 The initial stress concentration associated with these cracks are too low to

cause brittle fracture they may be sufficient to cause slow growth of the cracks
into the interior.

 Eventually the cracks may become sufficiently deep so that the stress

concentration exceeds the fracture strength and sudden failure occurs.

 Fatigue Failure

 The extent of the crack propagation process depends upon the brittleness of

the material under test.

 In brittle materials the crack grows to a critical size from which it propagates

right through the structures in a fast manner, whereas with ductile materials
the crack keeps growing until the remaining area cannot support the load
and an almost ductile fracture suddenly occurs.
 Fatigue Failure

 Failure can be recognized by the appearance of fracture.

 For a typical fracture ,Two distinct zones can be distinguished – a smooth zone

near the fatigue crack itself which, has been smoothened by the continual
rubbing together of the cracked surfaces, and a rough crystalline-looking zone
which is the final fracture.
 Occasionally fatigue cracks show rough concentric rings which correspond to

successive positions of the crack.

 Fatigue Life Prediction

 As shown in Figure 1, striations form because during the tension portion of

the stress cycle the crack pulled open and propagates forward, and on the
compression portion the crack closes and is arrested.

 As the crack grows in size, it reaches the critical length a c where it is unstable

and fast fracture ensues.

 Many automotive parts fail by fatigue such as crankshafts, camshafts, springs,

axles, gears, brackets, body shell structures, etc..
 Figure 1 : Fatigue Failure of a Steel Crankshaft

Fast
fracture

Fatigue
striations

Crack
origin
Common Origins of Fatigue Cracks
Figure -- Mechanism of Fatigue Crack Growth
109
 Fatigue Life Prediction

 In the laboratory, the life of a simple beam specimen or even a complex

component can be measured by the cyclic loading machines.

 A simple test is the rotating bending test depicted in Figure 2 a & b. A

sideways load is applied as the beam rotates producing a sinusoidal variation in
stress with time.

 Typically the number of cycles to failure depends on stress as shown

schematically in Figure 2 c.
 Fatigue Life Prediction

 Usually there is an intended life or “design life” for the component , which is

determined by failing the part under cyclic loading.

 The localized stress at the point of failure can be determined by finite element

analysis. Knowing localized stress, one can compare the actual cycles to failure
with that predicted from the S-N curve taken from a simple specimen in the lab
test.

 There is considerable scatter in fatigue lives as can be seen schematically in

Figure 3. Usually the mean is plotted on the S-N curve, so failures can occur
earlier than predicted.
 Figure 2 : Rotating Bending Fatigue Test

(a)

(c)
(b)
Figure 3 : Scatter in Fatigue Life Data
 Fatigue Mechanism

• Crack grows incrementally

da typ. 1 to 6
  K 
m

dN
~    a
increase in crack length per loading cycle
• Failed rotating shaft crack origin
-- crack grew even though
Kmax < Kc
-- crack grows faster as
• Ds increases Adapted from
• crack gets longer Fig. 9.28, Callister &
Rethwisch 3e. (Fig. 9.28
• loading freq. increases. is from D.J. Wulpi,
Understanding How
Components Fail,
American Society for
Metals, Materials Park,
OH, 1985.)
 Factors affecting fatigue properties

Surface finish:
 Scratches dents identification marks can act as stress raisers and so reduce
the fatigue properties.
 Electro-plating produces tensile residual stresses and have a detrimental
effect on the fatigue properties.

Temperature:
 As a consequence of oxidation or corrosion of the metal surface increasing,

increase in temperature can lead to a reduction in fatigue properties.

Residual stresses:
 Residual stresses are produced by fabrication and finishing processes.
 Residual stresses on the surface of the material will improve the fatigue
properties.

Heat treatment:

Hardening and heat treatments reduce the surface compressive stresses; as a result
the fatigue properties of the materials are getting affected.

Stress concentrations:

These are caused by sudden changes in cross section holes or sharp corners can
more easily lead to fatigue failure. Even a small hole lowers fatigue-limit by 30%.
 Design for Fatigue

To secure satisfactory fatigue life

 Modification of the design to avoid stress concentration eliminating sharp recesses and

severe stress raisers.

 Precise control of the surface finish by avoiding damage to surface by rough machining,

punching, stamping, shearing etc.

 Control of corrosion and erosion or chemical attack in service and to prevent surface

decarburization during processing of heat treatment.

 Surface treatment of the metal.

 Improving fatigue life

1. Impose a compressive S = stress amplitude

surface stress
(to suppress surface near zero or compressive m
cracks from growing) moderate tensile m
larger tensile m

N = Cycles to failure

--Method 1: shot peening --Method 2: carburizing

shot
C-rich gas
put
surface
into
compression

2. Remove stress bad better

concentrators.
bad better
Creep

120
 Time dependent and permanent deformation of materials when
subjected to a constant load or stress;

 It is often the limiting factor in lifetime of a part;

 It is observed in all materials type. Amorphous polymers (plastic

and rubber) are especially sensitive to creep deformation;

 Important for metals at temperatures greater than 0.4(Tm), Melting

temperature.
 Metals/alloys do not exhibit time dependent deformation
under normal service condition.
 Metals subjected to a constant load at elevated temperatures

will undergo a time dependent increase in length.

At what temperature the material will creep?
 Different metals have different melting temperatures. e.g. Pb

327°C, W 3407°C.
 Material will creep when the temperature will be < 0.5Tm (Tm

= absolute melting temperature).

Metal Melting temp. 0.5xMelting Temp

Lead 327oC 600oK 327oK 27oC
W 3407 3680 1840 1567
122
 High Temperature Creep

.
creep = f ( T, , t )
 Thermally activation deformation
 at constant stress
 over time.

Creep is slow, continuous deformation with time.

What is a high temperature?

RT ~ 298K, Thair drier ~ ?K, Tcar engine ~ ?K

Tjet engine ~ ?K, Tlight bulb ~?K, Tfusion reactor ~ ?K

What is a long time ?

Light bulbs ?, Jet engines ?, Automobile engines ?,

Steam pipes ?
 What is high temperature ?

300K? , 500K ?, 1,000K ?, 2,000K ?

Applications:

RT ~ 298K, Thair drier ~ 500K, Tcar engine ~ 900K

Tjet engine ~ 1,300K, Tlight bulb ~2,300K, Tfusion reactor ~ ???

For metals and ceramics : For polymers :

high T > 0.5 Tmelting high T > Tg

 What are long times ??

 Light bulbs
replace every ~500-1,000 hrs.
 Jet engines
check every ~1,000 hrs.
 Car engines
2hrs/day x 5 days/wk x 50 wks/yr x 5yrs = 2,500 hrs.
 Steam pipes
???
 High Temperature Applications

Components exposed to high temperature.

Sagging of the filament coil

increases with time due to
creep deformation caused
Oil Refinery by the weight of the
filament.
Too much deformation--the
adjacent turns of the coil
touch one another--causing
an electrical short and local
overheating, which quickly
leads to failure of the
filament

Steam turbine used in

power plant
 Creep

• A typical creep test consists of subjecting a specimen to a constant load

or stress while maintaining constant temperature.
• Upon loading, there is instant elastic deformation. The resulting creep
curve consists of 3 regions: primary or transient creep adjusts to the
creep level (creep rate may decrease); secondary creep-steady state-
constant creep rate, fairly linear region (strain hardening and recovery
stage); tertiary creep, there is accelerated rate of strain until rupture
(grain boundary separation, internal crack formation, cavities and voids).
Creep strain vs time at constant load and constant elevated temperature. Minimum creep
rate (steady-state creep rate), is the slope of the linear segment in the secondary region.
Rupture lifetime tr is the total time to rupture.
 Parameters of creep behavior
Secondary/steady-state creep:
Longest duration

 s   / t
Long-life applications
Time to rupture ( rupture lifetime, tr):
Important for short-life creep

/t

130 tr
 Stages of creep

1. Instantaneous deformation, mainly elastic.

2. Primary/transient creep. Slope of strain vs. time decreases with

time: work-hardening

3. Secondary/steady-state creep. Rate of straining constant: work-

hardening and recovery.

4. Tertiary. Rapidly accelerating strain rate up to failure: formation of

internal cracks, voids, grain boundary separation, necking, etc.
 Primary creep: OR TRANSIENT CREEP

 This is the first stage of the creep which represents a region of

decreasing creep rate;
 In this region the rate at which the material deforms decreases with
time until it reaches a constant value;
 The creep rate goes on reducing because as the metal deforms it
undergoes strain hardening and offers more and more resistance to
further elongation.
Transient creep:
 The principle characteristic of transient creep is the decreasing rate
in deformation;
 Deformation is rapid at first but gradually becomes slower and
slower as the rate approaches some fixed value;
 Transient creep in metals is observed at all temp, even near
absolute zero. Hence it is some times referred to as ‘cold creep’ .
Secondary creep: [steady state creep]
 Nearly constant creep rate, because strain-hardening and recovery
effects balance each other.
 Creep in this region takes place by the viscous flow in the materials.
Viscous creep: SECONDARY CREEP
 It is characterized by the viscous flow of the material means that
there is a constant or a steady increase in deformation at constant
stress.
 Although strain hardening is present, its effect is just balanced by
the ‘recovery’ process which has the opposite effect i.e softening
the metal.
 viscous creep is stopped when there is considerable reduction in cross
sectional area and enters the tertiary stage;
 The rate of deformation increases rapidly in this 3 rd stage and fracture
occurs at the end of this stage;
 Viscous creep is also known as ‘hot creep', since it is observed only at
higher temperature.
 Secondary Creep
• Strain rate is constant at a given T, 
-- strain hardening is balanced by recovery
stress exponent (material parameter)
 Qc 
 s  K 2 exp 
n
 activation energy for creep
strain rate  RT  (material parameter)
material const. applied stress
Stress (MPa)
• Strain rate 200
increases 427°C
100
for higher T,  538 °C
40
20
649 °C
10

10 -2 10 -1 1
Steady state creep rate
Tertiary creep :
 This stage is period of increasing strain rate;
 Tertiary creep occurs when there is an effective reduction in
cross-sectional area due to necking or internal void formation;
 If the stress is kept constant of the load or if true strain is taken
into consideration then the resulting fracture due to creep
would be at ‘B’.
 Creep Demonstration

Lo

L

t=0
TIME
 Types of Creep
Creep are classified based on temperature
 Logarithmic Creep
 Recovery Creep
 Diffusion Creep
 At low temperature the creep rate decreases with time and the logarithmic
creep curve is obtained.
 At high temperature, the influence of work hardening is weakened and there
is a possibility of mechanical recovery. As a result, the creep rate does not
decrease and the recovery creep curve is obtained.
 At very high temperature, the creep is primarily influenced by diffusion and
load applied has little effect. This creep is termed as diffusion creep or plastic
creep.
 Alloys for High-Temperatures
(turbines in jet engines, hypersonic airplanes, nuclear reactors, etc.)

Creep minimized in materials with

 High melting temperature
 High elastic modulus
 Large grain sizes (inhibits grain boundary sliding)

Following materials are especially resilient to creep:

 Stainless steels
 Refractory metals (containing elements of high melting point, like Nb,
Mo, W, Ta)
 “Superalloys” (Co, Ni based: solid solution hardening and secondary
phases)
 Creep is characterized by:
 For long life applications by: Steady state creep (slope of the secondary
portion of creep curve).
 For relatively short life situations by: Time to rupture.
 Proposed mechanisms (each leads to different stress exponent; n):
 Stress-induced vacancy diffusion.
 Grain boundary diffusion.
 Dislocation motion.
 Grain boundary sliding.
 Creep

Dependence of creep strain rate on stress; stress v/s rupture lifetime for a low
carbon-nickel alloy at 3 temperatures.
 Creep: stress and temperature effects

With increasing stress or temperature:

 The instantaneous strain increases;

 The steady-state creep rate increases;

 The time to rupture decreases.

 Creep: stress and temperature effects
Stress/temperature dependence of the steady-state creep rate can be described by

 s  K 2  n exp
Qc 
   
 RT 
Qc = activation energy for creep
K2 and n are material constants
 Mechanisms of Creep

Different mechanisms act in different materials and under different loading and
temperature conditions:
 Stress-assisted vacancy diffusion
 Grain boundary diffusion
 Grain boundary sliding
 Dislocation motion Different mechanisms  different n, Qc.

Grain boundary diffusion Dislocation glide and climb

 Dislocation glide :

 The creep rate is established by the ease with which the dislocation
move across obstacles such as precipitates, GB etc.

Grain Boundary

Dislocation

 This may include cross-slip of dislocations with the aid of thermal

energy.
 Dislocation glide results in increase in plastic strain during creep
deformation
 Dislocation creep or dislocation climb

 This is caused due to mutual movement of dislocations & vacancies.

 At high temp the diffusion rate of vacancies is more which make the
dislocations to glide & climb,
 edge dislocation can move end of a slip plane;
 OR to a plane above or below the slip Plane.

This is called dislocation climb.

.
Dislocation

Vacancy
Mutual movement of dislocations & vacancies.
 This occurs at high temperature

(T>0.4Tm) &
 When dislocation cause across obstacles,
 they use vacancies/or interstitial atoms to climb and go around them for
slip &
 hence plastic deformation continues.
 Diffusion creep
 It occurs when temp. is high & at relatively low stresses.
 diffusion of vacancies controls the creep rate.
 But edge dislocation is not involved in them.
 vacancies move from the surface of the specimen towards the stress
axis

Stress axis
 i.e when load is applied & kept constant ,the vertical boundaries are

subjected to compression & the horizontal grain boundaries are

subjected to tensile stress;
 so vacancies migrate from tensile region to compression region &

atoms migrate in opposite direction to vacancies;

 i.e causing the creep strain along tensile axis,

 the mechanism is called Nabarro-herring creep because the flux of

atoms is through the bulk of atoms.

 Grain boundary sliding

 At low temp the Grain boundaries will not flow viscously & provide
obstacles to dislocation motion.
 At elevated temp , the grains in polycrystalline materials are able to
move relative to each other, this is called grain boundary sliding and is
an shear process which occurs in the direction of grain boundary [GB] .
 a large no. of grains sliding with each other results in plastic deformation
due to creep .
 GB sliding is promoted by increases the temp. T & or decreasing the
strain rate.
 In fine grained materials because of large no. of grains this type of creep is
more ,so to avoid it large-coarse grained materials are to be used.
 Ex : Ni-based super alloy with single crystals in jet engine blades, eliminates
the possibility of creep at high temp aided by grain boundary sliding
Creep testing

Furnace
 Creep properties

1) Creep strength/ or creep limit:

 It is defined as the highest stress that material can withstand without
excessive deformation for a specified length of time.
 Ex :- creep strength for a steam turbine blade may be that stress which
will produce just 0.2% creep for 10,000 hours of working at 800 oC.
 Creep strength can also be defined as the stress at given temperature
which produces steady state creep rate of fixed amount say 10 -11 to 10-
8 /sec.

OR
 It is the stress to cause a creep strain of 1% in fixed time say 10 5 hours.
2) Creep rupture strength:- it is defined as the highest stress that a material
can withstand without rupture for a specified length of time.
 Ex : For the same turbine blade . the rupture strength is that stress which
produces a fracture in 1000HR OR 10000HR OR 100 000 hrs at 800oC.

 Thus creep rupture strength is also defined as the limiting stress below
which creep is so slow that will not result in fracture within any finite
length of time.
 It is also called as” stress ruptures strength”.
3) Creep life:

It is defined as the TIME to fracture under a given static

load.

0
C
 Factors affecting Creep:

 Load :
 Temperature:
 Composition:
 Grain size
 Heat treatment
 Factors affecting Creep

Heat Treatment:
 Creep resistance of steel is affected by heat treatment.
 At temperatures of 300°C or higher maximum creep resistance is usually
produced. But the quacking and drawing decreases the creep resistance.

Grain size:
 The major factor in creep is grain size; Normally large grained materials
exhibit better creep resistance than fine grained one based on the
temperature.
 At temperatures below the lowest temperature of recrystallization, a fine
grained structure possesses the greater resistance whereas at temperature
above this point a large grained structure possesses the greater resistance and
we must select it for high temperature applications.
161
 Factors affecting Creep

Strain Hardening:
 Strain hardening of steel increases its creep resistance.
 Particularly below the equi-cohesive temperature at which the fracture changes
from intra crystalline to inner-crystalline strain hardening increases the creep
resistance and hence there is no measurable creep. So the second stage of creep
curve is almost horizontal.
 At temperature above the equi-cohesive temperature yield rate exceeds the strain
hardening rate and creep will proceed even under low stresses.

Alloying additions:
 At temperatures, below the lowest temperatures of recrystallization the creep
resistance of steel may be improved by the finite forming elements like nickel, cobalt
and manganese or by the carbide forming elements like chromium molybdenum,
tungsten and vanadium.
 Factors affecting Creep- Summary

 Load : Creep rate increases as load increases.

 Temperature: Creep rate increases as T increases.
 Composition: Pure metals are softer than alloys , the different phases
present stops the dislocation glide . Hence creep is more in pure metals.
 Grain size: “Smaller the grain, stronger the material.” But above Equi-
cohesive temp. this effect will be reversed one.
 Equi-cohesive temp. (Kelvin) Te > Tm/2
 Heat Treatment: This changes the structure, Obviously the materials
property changes, creep resistance also changes.
Fracture
 Fundamentals of fracture

 Failure is undesirable: Putting human lives in jeopardy,

economic losses, affecting availability of products and services.
 Causes:
 Improper material selection and processing.
 Inadequate design of the component.
 Misuse

165
 Fundamentals of fracture

 Simple fracture:

Separation of body into two or more pieces in response to an imposed

stress that is static (i.e., constant or slowly changing with time) and at
temperatures that are low relative to the melting temperature.
 Fracture modes based on ability to experience plastic deformation:

 Ductile.

 Brittle.

166
 Ductile

Fracture

Brittle

Temperature

Factors affecting fracture Strain rate

State of stress

167
Fracture of a material by cracking can occur in many ways, principally
the following:
1.Slow application of external loads.
2.Rapid application of external loads (impact).
3.Cyclic or repeated loading (fatigue).
4.Time-dependent deformation (creep).
5.Internal stresses, such as thermal stresses caused by anisotropy of
the thermal expansion coefficient or temperature differences in a
body.
6.Environmental effects (stress corrosion cracking, hydrogen
embrittlement, liquid metal embrittlement, etc.)
168
The process of fracture can, in most cases, be subdivided into
the following categories:
1. Damage accumulation.
2. Nucleation of one or more cracks or voids.
3. Growth of cracks or voids. (This may involve a coalescence of
the cracks or voids.)

169
 Fundamentals of fracture

 For tensile stress, most metal alloys are ductile.

 Ceramics are brittle, polymers exhibit both types of fracture.
 Fracture steps:
 Crack formation.
 Crack propagation.
 Mode of fracture depends on mechanism of crack propagation.

170
 Behavior described Terms Used

Crystallographic mode Shear Cleavage

Appearance of Fracture surface Fibrous Granular / bright

Strain to fracture Ductile Brittle

Path Transgranular Intergranular

171
 Tension

Torsion

Fatigue

Conditions of fracture
Creep

Low temperature Brittle fracture

Temper embrittlement

Hydrogen embrittlement

172
 Ductile fracture

 The material exhibits substantial plastic deformation in the

vicinity of an advancing crack with high energy absorption

before fracture. There is evidence of appreciable gross
deformation at fracture surfaces (e.g., twining and tearing).
 It proceeds relatively slowly as the crack length is extended.
 Crack is stable, i.e., resists any further extension unless there is

an increase in applied stress.

 Cup-and-cone facture type.

173
 Ductile fracture (Moderately)

• Evolution to failure:
void void growth shearing
necking fracture
nucleation and linkage at surface


• Resulting 50m
50 m
fracture
surfaces
(steel)
100 m
particles
serve as void
nucleation
sites.
174
 Ductile fracture

Highly ductile fracture Moderately ductile fracture Brittle fracture 175

Cup-and-cone fracture in aluminum
Brittle fracture in a mild steel

176
 Ductile fracture

Ductile fracture preferred due to:

 Ductile fracture gives warning (due to associated plastic

deformation). This allows preventive measures to be

taken.
 More strain energy is required to induce ductile fracture

(Ductile materials are tougher).

177
 Brittle fracture

 The material experiences little or no plastic deformation with

low energy absorption.
 Cracks may spread extremely rapidly.

 Crack is unstable, i.e., crack propagation, once started, will

continue spontaneously without an increase in applied stress.
 Direction of crack propagation is nearly perpendicular to
direction of applied tensile stress and yields relatively flat
fracture surface.

178
 Brittle fracture

 Cleavage: In brittle fracture, crack propagation corresponds to

successive and repeated breaking of atomic bonds along specific
crystallographic planes.
 Cleavage is transgranular since cracks pass through the grains.

 Crack surface may have grainy or faceted texture due to changes

in orientation of cleavage planes from one grain to another.

179
• Ductile-to-brittle transition temperature (DBTT)

et als (e . g . , Cu, Ni)

FCC m

BCC metals (e.g., iron at T < 914C)

Impact Energy

polymers
Brittle More Ductile

High strength materials ( y >E/150)

Temperature
Ductile-to-brittle
transition temperature

180
 Fracture modes

There are three different modes of fracture, each having a different

value of Gc. These modes are designated I, II, and III, as illustrated in the
next slide.
In mode I fracture, the fracture plane is perpendicular to the normal
force. This is what is occurs in tension tests of brittle materials.
Mode II fractures occur under the action of a shear stress, with the
fracture propagating in the direction of shear. An example is the
punching of a hole.
Mode III fractures are also shear separations, but here the fracture
propagates perpendicular to the direction of shear. An example is the
cutting of paper with scissors. 181
Different modes of fracture

182
 Ductile vs. brittle fracture

  Ductile Brittle
deformation extensive little
crack propagation slow, needs stress fast

type of materials most metals (not too ceramics, ice, cold

cold) metals

warning permanent none

elongation
strain energy higher lower
fractured surface rough smoother

necking yes no

183
 Summary

 Fatigue is a form of failure that occurs in structures subject to dynamic

and fluctuating stresses.

 Comprise approximately 90% of metallic failures, Polymers and ceramics

are also susceptible.

 Creep is time dependent and permanent deformation of materials when

subjected to a constant load or stress. It is often the limiting factor in
lifetime of a part.

 Fracture is separation of body into two or more pieces in response to an

imposed stress that is static and at temperatures that are low relative to
the melting temperature.
184