Chapter 5

Casting Processes
Casting Process

It is a manufacturing process in which
molten material is poured or injected into a
mold (or cavity) and allowed to freeze so
as to take form of the mold. The term
casting is used to denote both the product
and the process.

Attributes of a casting process
most suited for intricate shapes and for parts
with internal cavities, such as engine blocks,
cylinder heads, pump housing, crankshaft,
machine tool beds and frames, etc.
particularly suitable for small runs
cost of equipment and facilities low
some metals can be shaped by casting only
because of the metallurgical and mechanical
properties.
Casting Processes
Sand casting: green sand and dry sand
Shell molding
Lost foam process
Investment casting
Ceramic mold casting
Permanent mold casting
Slush molding
Pressure casting
Die casting
Centrifugal casting
Core molding

TABLE 5.8 Casting processes, and their advantages and limitations.

PROCESS ADVANTAGES LIMITATIONS
Sand Almost any metal is cast; no limit to
size, shape or weight; low tooling
cost.
Some finishing required;
somewhat coarse finishl wide
tolerances.
Shell mold Good dimensional accuracy and
surface finish; high production rate.
Part size limited; expensive
patterns and equipment
required.
Expendable
pattern
Most metals cast with no limit to
size; complex shapes
Patterns have low strength and
can be costly for low quantities.
Plaster mold Intricate shapes; good dimensional
accuracy and finish; low porosity.
Limited to nonferrous metals;
limited size and volume of
production; mold making time
relatively long.
Ceramic mold Intricate shapes; close tolerance
parts; good surface finish.
Limited size.
Investment Intricate shapes; excellent surface
finish and accuracy; almost any
metal cast.
Part size limited; expensive
patterns, molds, and labor.
Permanent mold Good surface finish and dimensional
accuracy; low porosity; high
production rate.
High mold cost; limited shape
and intricacy; not suitable for
high-melting-point metals.
Die Excellent dimensional accuracy and
surface finish; high production rate.
Die cost is high; part size
limited; usually limited to
nonferrous metals; long lead
time.
Centrifugal Large cylindrical parts with good
quality; high production rate.
Equipment is expensive; part
shape limited.

Casting Process Requirements
Molds: two types: expendable and non-
expendable
Pattern and molding sand for making an
expendable mold
Cores for providing internal cavity
Melting and pouring of molten material
Cleaning
Heat treatment
Sand reconditioning facilities
Sand testing equipment\
Pattern
It is a replica of the part to be cast and is used to
make the mold cavity into which liquid metal is
poured.
Pattern Materials
wood, plastic, and metal
Pattern Types
single, loose, gated, match plate, cope and drag, split,
skeleton, sweep, etc.
Permanent Mold Materials
Examples are H13, P20, graphite, etc. See Tables 3.4
and 3.5 for materials requirements.
Molding Sand
Composition
silica 70-85%
clay 10-20%
water 3-6%
additives (wood flour, sea coal, cereal, dextrin) 1-6%
Molding Sand Properties
refractoriness
strength
plasticity
flowability
permeability
Fig. 5.14 Schematic illustration of a sand mold
Mold
Cope and drag
Core
Riser - Its function is to feed the rising to
compensate for the shrinkage of molten material
during cooling.
Gating system - It consists of the pouring basin,
sprue, runner and ingate. Its function is to fill the
mold cavity in time so that the molten material
does not solidify before filling the entire mold
cavity.
FIGURE 5.25 Schematic illustration of investment casting (lost-wax process).
Castings by this method can be made with very fine detail and from a variety of
metals.
FIGURE 5.27 The pressure-casting process uses graphite
molds for the production of steel railroad wheels.
FIGURE 5.28 Sequence of steps in die casting of a part in the hot-
chamber process. Source: Courtesy of Foundry Management and
Technology.

FIGURE 5.29 Sequence of operations in die casting of a
part in the cold-chamber process.

TABLE 5.6 Properties and typical applications of common
die-casting alloys.

ALLOY ULTIMATE
TENSILE
STRENGTH
(MPa)
YIELD
STRENGTH
(MPa)
ELONGA-
TION
in 50 mm
(%)
APPLICATIONS
Aluminum 380
(3.5 Cu-8.5 Si)
320 160 2.5 Appliances, automotive
components, electrical
motor frames and
housings, engine blocks.
13 (12 Si) 300 150 2.5 Complex shapes with thin
walls, parts requiring
strength at elevated
temperatures
Brass 858 (60 Cu) 380 200 15 Plumbing fixtures, lock
hardware, bushings,
ornamental castings
Magnesium AZ91B (9 Al
0.7 Zn)
230 160 3 Power tools, automotive
parts, sporting goods
Zinc No. 3 (4 Al) 280 - 10 Automotive parts, office
equipment, household
utensils, building
hardware, toys
5 (4 Al 1 Cu) 320 - 7 Appliances, automotive
parts, building hardware,
business equipment
Source: Data from The North American Die Casting Association
FIGURE 5.30 Schematic illustration of the centrifugal
casting process. Pipes, cylinder liners, and similarly shaped
parts can be cast by this process.
FIGURE 5.31 (a) Schematic illustration of the semicentrifugal casting
process. (b) Schematic illustration of casting by centrifuging. The molds
are placed at the periphery of the machine, and the molten metal is
forced into the molds by centrifugal forces.

Cooling Shrinkages

When liquid metal cools from its pouring temperature in a casting, it
undergoes the following types of shrinkages:

(a) Liquid shrinkage: It occurs during cooling up to the liquidous
temperature. It is about 0.5% of the room temperature volume which is
small compared to other types of shrinkages.

(b) Solidification shrinkage: It occurs during cooling from liquidous to
solidus temperatures. This shrinkage is large for some metals and, if
not adequately taken care of, gives rise to shrinkage cavities which are
a kind of casting defect.

(c) Solid shrinkage: It occurs during cooling from solidus temperature
to room temperature. It is a function of the coefficient of thermal
expansion of material.

The liquid and the solidification shrinkages are taken care of by a riser.
Thus the larger the solidification shrinkage, the larger is the size of the
riser needed.
FIGURE 5.1 (a) Temperature as a function of time for the
solidification of pure metals. Note that freezing takes place at a
constant temperature. (b) Density as a function of time.

TABLE 5.1 Volumetric solidification contraction or
expansion percentages for various cast metals.

Contraction (%):
Aluminum 7.1
Zinc 6.5
Al-4.5% Cu 6.3
Gold 5.5
White iron 4-5.5
Copper 4.9
Brass (70-30) 4.5
Magnesium 4.2
90% Cu-10% Al 4
Carbon steels 2.5-4
Al-12% Si 3.8
Lead 3.2
Expansion (%):
Bismuth 3.3
Silicon 2.9
Gray iron 2.5

Liquid shrinkage is about 0.5% by volume with normal
superheat.
Pattern Allowances
A pattern is slightly larger than the part of which it is a replica because
of the following allowances:
(a) Solid shrinkage allowance
(b) Machining allowance
(c) Draft- It is the taper provided on surfaces parallel to the direction of
withdrawal of the pattern from the mold to prevent crumbling of the
mold surfaces. The taper varies from 0.25 to 2 degrees.


Solidification of Castings

The understanding of solidification is important because it governs the
grain structure and the defects that are introduced during solidification
stage. Both of these items affect the properties of the casting.
Solidification involves two steps that are nucleation and growth.

Nucleation
It refers to the process in which tiny solid particles, called nuclei, are
formed when liquid metal cools below its liquidous temperature. In
practice, nuclei are formed but are dissolved back into the liquid metal
unless considerable supercooling occurs. In the absence of growth of
these nuclei, solid grain structure is not generated in the mold.

There are two kinds of nucleation:
(a) Homogeneous nucleation: it occurs without the help of foreign
particles.

(b) Heterogeneous nucleation: it occurs with the help of foreign particles
such as the mold material, impurities in molten metal, and added
nucleating materials.
Homogeneous Nucleation
Considering the nucleus in the form of a tiny sphere, it
may be shown by energy considerations (analysis not
presented here) that there is a critical nucleus size needed
for it to grow into a solid structure. The critical nucleus
radius r is given by the following equation

r = - 2 /Fv
where is the surface energy term and Fv is the change
in free energy. As temperature decreases, Fv increases
while remains constant so that r decreases. This is
shown in the diagram. With the decrease in temperature of
liquid, its viscosity increases so that the nucleated solid
particle size increases. Thus the nucleus grows to give
rise to the solid structure only when its size is greater than
the critical nucleus radius and this requires supercooling.
Heterogeneous Nucleation
Since in heterogeneous nucleation the solid phase
crystallizes on a foreign particle, the initial nucleus size is
larger than in homogeneous nucleation and so the
degree of supercooling needed for solidification is
smaller. As in a sand casting, there is an abundance of
foreign particles (sand) on the mold surface,
heterogeneous nucleation is the dominating mechanism
in the early stage of solidification. On the other hand,
solidification in the central part of the casting would be
expected to occur by homogeneous nucleation because
of the scarcity of foreign particles in this region unless
the material itself contains impurities.
Grain Structure

Based on the above understanding, one can understand
the grain structure developed in a sand casting. Consider a
long square mold in which molten metal has just been
poured. The material starts cooling and when it reaches its
liquidous temperature, some nuclei appear but are soon
dissolved back into the liquid. With further cooling, bigger
size nuclei are produced and since sand particles are
present on the surface, heterogeneous nucleation will
contribute to a few layers of equiaxed grains. See Figs. 5.8
(a) and (b). Note that the solid front is now away from the
surface and so the sand particles are not there to continue
the heterogeneous nucleation process. Now the
homogeneously nucleated grains will continue growing
because of the shortage of other nuclei and their
orientation will be from the surface to the center (towards
the higher temperature because of the temperature
gradient). These grains are known as the columnar grains
(Fig. 5.8 a and b and also Fig. 5.9).
When a column forms side arms, it is known as a dendrite and the
grain structure is known as the dendritic grain structure. As time
passes, more supercooling occurs and so the nuclei are now rapidly
produced. These nuclei resist the growth of neighboring nuclei which
hampers the growth of the columnar/dendritic grain structure and
instead an equiaxed grain structure is produced at the center (Fig. 5
b).

Since the columnar and dendritic grain structures are coarse and
directional, they are undesirable in most situations. This can be
changed in practice by adding the nucleating agents as given in the
Table below. In this case, an equiaxed grain structure in the entire
casting is obtained, as shown in Fig. 5.1 (c).

Table: Nucleating agents for different alloys
Metal Nucleating Agents
Al alloys Ti compounds such as TiAl3, TiB2, TiC
Plain carbon steel Al compounds such as AlN, Al2O3
Stainless steel Ca and Mg cyanides
Mg alloys ZrC, ZrN, Zr oxides
Cast iron Sulfur compounds

FIGURE 5.8 Schematic illustration of three cast structures of metals
solidified in a square mold: (a) pure metals; (b) solid-solution alloys; and
(c) the structure obtained by heterogenous nucleation of grains, using
nucleating agents.
FIGURE 5.9 Development of a preferred texture at a cool
mold wall. Note that only favorably oriented grains grow
away from the surface of the mold.

FIGURE 5.10 Schematic illustration of alloy solidification and
temperature distribution in a solidifying metal. Note the formation of
dendrites in the semisolid (mushy) zone.

FIGURE 5.11 (a) Solidification patterns for gray cast iron in a 180-mm (7-
in.) square casting. Note that after 11 minutes of cooling, dendrites reach
each other, but the casting is still mushy throughout. It takes about two
hours for this casting to solidify completely. (b) Solidification of carbon
steels in sand and chill (metal) molds.
FIGURE 5.12 Schematic illustration of three basic types of cast
structures: (a) columnar dendritic; (b) equiaxed dendritic; and (c)
equiaxed nondendritic.
Coring

Consider the solidification of an alloy A-B (comprised of the elements
A and B) in a cylinder (see next slide). As the alloy cools, the solid
initially formed on the cylinder surface has a composition C
0
which is
leaner in A than the nominal composition C of the alloy. This makes
the liquid present in contact with this solid richer in A through the
process of diffusion. Now the A-rich liquid produces a solid layer of
composition C1 which has a greater % of A than in the previous case.
If this kind of process is envisioned to occur and solidification is
monitored from surface to center in the cylinder, it will produce coring
where the cylindrical cores will have different compositions. This
results in segregation which is technically significant because
properties of the material depend upon its composition among other
things.

The segregation of solute due to coring can be removed if equilibrium
structure of the alloy is a single phase. This is accomplished by a heat
treatment known as homogenization anneal. Here the metal is
exposed to high temperature for a sufficient time to allow diffusion of
the constituents so as to homogenize the structure.
Segregation in Casting

As explained above, gradual solidification produces solid structure of
a composition different from the nominal composition of the alloy. This
effect accounts for microsegregation and macrosegragation.
Microsegregation refers to the compositional variation from inside of
the dendrite to outside, and macrosegragation to the compositional
variation across the casting. The other types of segregation are
normal segregation, inverse segregation, and gravity segregation.
Normal segregation is the case where low melting point alloy
constituents in the solidifying metal are concentrated in the center
location of the casting.
The inverse segregation is said to occur when the concentration of
alloying elements is less at the center than outside.
In gravity segregation, the heavier alloying elements tend to settle
down towards the bottom.
The segregation of any kind is bad for the uniformity of properties.
Riser Design
The function of a riser is to feed liquid metal into the locations where the
shrinkage of liquid during cooling is likely to produce voids. The latter
are known as the shrinkage voids or shrinkage cavities.
The requirements for feeding to occur effectively are as follows:
1. The riser size is large enough for feeding.
2. The riser is the last part in the mold to solidify.
3. The riser is placed at proper location so that the metal already
solidified does not impede the flow of molten metal from riser to the
locations where feeding is needed.

Riser Size
There is no good method to determine the size of riser. NRL (Naval
Research Lab) method, which is sometimes used, is based on the
following curve which was developed for steels and should be used with
discretion taking into account the solidification shrinkage data for
different materials.

In the diagram above, shape factor, SF = (L+W)/T
where L denotes the length, W the width, and T the thickness (note L >W>
T). For a particular SF, VR/VC is read from the plot and, knowing the
casting volume VC, the riser volume VR can be calculated.
The second requirement can be analyzed based on the Chvorinovs rule for
heat flow which gives
solidification time (V/A)
2

where V/A is the volume-to-surface area ratio. Note that the higher the
value of (V/A) for a solid body, the slower it cools. Since the riser should
solidify after the casting in order to provide feeding,
(V/A)
R
> (V/A)
C
.
This consideration leads to the practical shape of the riser being a cylinder
and its height-to-diameter (h/d) ratios being as follows:
Top riser: h / d = 0.5
Side riser: h / d = 1.0
Knowing V
R
the riser cylinder dimensions can thus be determined.

Riser Placement
Guidelines for placement of the riser based on the experimental data for steels have
also been provided by NRL for bars and sheets. The representative data for bars
(where t is the thickness) is shown below.


Gating System Design
The function of the gating system is to facilitate filling of the mold
cavity at the proper rate without excessive temperature loss,
objectionable turbulence, entrapped gases, slag and dross (oxides).
The recommended time for filling is 0.25 to 0.5 min., 1 to 2 min. being
normal.
The following equations may be used to calculate the size of gating
system elements:

Continuity equation: Q = Av

Bernoullis equation: h + (p / w) + (v / 2g) = constant

where Q = flow rate; A = area of flow
v = flow velocity; h = height from a datum
p = pressure; w = weight per unit volume of liquid metal.

Using the above equations, the following results may be obtained:
1. For a top gating system

v = (2gh)

For a bottom gating system,
tf = (2Am/Ag. (2g)

) . ((ht)

- (ht - hm)

)
In order to avoid aspiration of gases during mold filling, a sprue
in the form of a tapered cylinder (as opposed to the straight
cylinder) is needed.

Fluidity
It is the material property which signifies the
relative ability of molten material to fill a mold
cavity. Note that this definition, as opposed to
viscosity, takes into account the effect of
decreasing temperature, which produces
crystallization in the metal stream and thus
impedes its flow.

Methods for Determining the fluidity are:

Fluidity spiral tube method
Suction tube method

Factors Affecting Fluidity
(a) Related to molten metal
Viscosity
Surface tension
Inclusions
Solidification range of alloy
Latent heat of fusion of alloy
Thermal diffusivity

(b) Related to casting parameters
Degree of superheat
Mold material - thermal conductivity, surface
characteristics, etc.
Gases in Metals
Gases in metals are undesirable for the following reasons:
(a) They contribute to the defects such as porosity, gas holes, and pin holes.
(b) They result in the formation of compounds such as oxides, halides, and
nitrides.
(c) They produce embrittlement sometimes as in steels.

The solubility of a gas in molten material increases with the increase in
pressure and temperature. Thus, when a material is melted in open
atmosphere, it dissolves the surrounding gases because of the increase in
temperature. If the temperature and/or pressure decrease, as in cooling, the
solubility of gas decreases and the excess gas is liberated. If this gas in not
able to escape out of the mold, it is locked inside the cast part and produces
defects such as porosity and pinholes.


The solubility of gas is governed by the Sieverts
law which states that the solubility of gas, S = K
(p
g
)

where K is a material constant and p

g
is the
partial pressure of gas in the atmosphere over the
melt.

The measures to control gases are:
Vacuum degassing
Vacuum melting
Gas bubbling (the gases used are helium,
argon, hydrogen, nitrogen, CO, etc.)
Casting Defects
The defects in castings are undesirable because they impair their
integrity. Some of the common casting defects are shown on the
next page. The causes and the remedial measure for these are
given below:

1. Defects due to gases: porosity, pinholes, and gas holes
The gas may come from various sources such as solubility,
aspiration, and reaction of hot metal with mold. The remedy is
controlled melting or other measures (as discussed earlier) for
reduced solubility of gases, reduced moisture content and organic
material in the molding sand, and increased permeability of the
mold.

2. Defects due to insufficient compacting: drop and penetration
If molding sand is not compacted enough, a chunk of sand may drop
because of the jolt in handling the molding boxes. This defect is
known as drop. The penetration defect arises because of
penetration of the molten material within spaces around the sand
particles. The remedy for both defects is to use proper proportion of
water and clay in the sand for strength and to ram the sand
adequately during mold preparation.
3. Defect due to loose dirt: dirt
This defect arises because of loose dirt left in the mold during cleaning.
As sand is light, it rises to the top of the mold surface when the molten
material is poured in.

4. Defects due to impurities: inclusions
The impurities may either be present already in the molten material or
generated during melting because of the addition of fluxes or reaction
with atmosphere.

5. Due to improper gating system or insufficient mold strength: wash
This defect arises when velocity of the molten material entering mold is
too high or the mold surface strength is not adequate because of
improper composition or inadequate compaction.

6. Due to improper sand composition: buckle and swell
When molten material enters the mold, the latter heats up and so
expands. In the absence of adequate organic material, which is
supposed to burn and make space for such an expansion, mold wall
either swells or buckles.

7. If molten material has to travel a long distance in order to fill the
mold cavity, it runs the risk of solidifying before the entire mold is
filled. This gives rise to a partially filled mold and this defect is
known as the misrun. When liquid material travels in the mold from
opposite sides, a cold shut is produced where the two fronts meet if
they are not hot enough to cause diffusion.

8. Due to improper positioning of the cope and drag or the core:
shifts

9. Due to the lack of feeding: shrinkage cavities
In case of incorrect riser volume or faulty placement, liquid material
is not able to fill the cavities produced because of shrinkage during
solidification. The remedy is to provide adequate riser volume and
place it in proper locations. Sometimes, tapering the section or using
a chill to produce directional solidification may be the solution. The
use of a ceramic sleeve or an exothermic compound in the riser to
delay its freezing is another option.



11. Due to tensile stresses in the mold: hot tear
This defect arises because of mold constraint to a section of
the casting undergoing contraction. and so the section is
subjected to tensile stresses. The section is most vulnerable
to developing cracks from this tensile stress in locations
where the temperature is close to the solidus temperature of
the material, because in this state the structure consists of
the solid grains interspersed with liquid film. This state is
known as the coherent brittle state. In this state, the material
has a very limited fracture strain. Note that the coherent
brittle state may exist even below the liquidous temperature
if low melting point impurities are present in the material. At
the lower temperature, casting experiences greater strain
and so the likelihood of hot tears is increased even further.

The remedy to avoid this defect is to remove the casting
from mold before being subjected to high tensile stresses.
This is referred to in industry as shake while hot.