UNIT I

METAL CASTING PROCESSES

 Sand Casting: Sand Mould – Type of patterns - Pattern
Materials – Pattern allowances –Moulding sand Properties
and testing – Cores –Types and applications – Moulding
machines– Types and applications; Melting furnaces:
Blast and Cupola Furnaces; Principle of special casting
processes: Shell - investment – Ceramic mould – Pressure
die casting - Centrifugal Casting - CO2 process – Stir
casting; Defects in Sand casting
 CASTING: Introduction
 Virtually nothing moves, turns, rolls, or flies without the
benefit of cast metal products.

 The metal casting industry plays a key role in all the

major sectors of our economy. There are castings in
locomotives, cars trucks, aircraft, office buildings,
factories, schools, and homes.

 Casting means pouring molten metal into a mould with

a cavity of the shape to be made, and allowing it to
solidify. When solidified, the desired metal object is
taken out from the mould either by breaking the mould
or taking the mould apart.
CASTING: Introduction
CASTING: Applications
CASTING: Terminology
CASTING: Terminology
 CASTING: Advantages
 Casting can be used to create complex part geometries,
including both external and internal shapes.

 Some casting processes are capable of producing parts to net

shape. (No further manufacturing operations are required to
achieve the required geometry and dimensions of the parts.)

 {Molten material can flow into very small sections so that

intricate shapes can be made by this process. As a result, many
other operations, such as machining, forging, and welding,
can be minimized or eliminated.}

 Other casting processes are near net shape, for which some
additional shape processing is required (usually machining)
in order to achieve accurate dimensions and details.
 CASTING: Advantages
 Casting can be used to produce very large parts. Castings
weighing more than 100 tons have been made. Size and
weight of the product is not a limitation for the casting
process.

 The casting process can be performed on any metal that can

be heated to the liquid state.

 Some casting methods are quite suited to mass production.

 It is possible to cast practically any material that is ferrous or

non-ferrous.
 CASTING: Advantages
 As the metal can be placed exactly where it is required,
large saving in weight can be achieved.

 The necessary tools required for casting molds are very

simple and inexpensive. As a result, for production of a
small lot, it is the ideal process.

 There are certain parts made from metals and alloys that
can only be processed this way.

 Size and weight of the product is not a limitation for the

casting process.
 CASTING: Disadvantages
 limitations on mechanical properties

 porosity

 poor dimensional accuracy and surface finish for some

casting processes,

 safety hazards to humans when processing hot molten

metals,

 Environmental problems.
 Metals processed by casting
 Sand casting – 60%
 Investment casting – 7%
 Die casting – 9%
 Permanent mold casting – 11%
 Centrifugal casting – 7%
 Shell mold casting – 6%
 SAND CASTING STEPS
 Patternmaking

 Core making

 Molding

 Melting and pouring

 Cleaning
SAND CASTING STEPS
Single Piece Mould
Two parts molding
 Pattern and Mould
 Pattern is one of the important tool used for
making mould into which molten metal is poured
to produce casting

 It is the model of the part to be produced

 It is slightly larger than the actual size of the

casting, due to various allowances
 Factors considered for selection of
pattern
 Number of Castings to be produced.

 Size and complexity of the shape and size of casting

 Type of molding and castings method to be used.

 Machining operation

 Characteristics of castings
 TYPES OF PATTERN
 Solid/Single piece pattern
 Split/Two piece pattern
 Three/Multi piece pattern
 Match plate pattern
 Loose piece pattern
 Cope and Drag pattern
 Follow board pattern
 Gated pattern
 Sweep pattern
 Skeleton pattern
 Segmental/Split pattern
 Single piece (solid) pattern
 Made from one piece and does not contain loose pieces or joints.

 Inexpensive.

 Used for large size simple castings.

 Pattern is accommodated either in the cope or in the drag.

Examples:

1. Bodies of regular shapes.

2. stuffing box of steam engine.

Single piece (solid) pattern
 Split piece pattern:
 Patterns of intricate shaped castings cannot be made in one piece

because of the inherent difficulties associated with the molding

operations (e.g. withdrawing pattern from mould).

 The upper and the lower parts of the split piece patterns are

accommodated in the cope and drag portions of the mold

respectively.

 Parting line of the pattern forms the parting line of the mould.

 Dowel pins are used for keeping the alignment between the two parts of

the pattern.
Split piece pattern:
Split piece pattern:
 Loose piece pattern
 Certain patterns cannot be withdrawn once they are
embedded in the molding sand. Such patterns are usually
made with one or more loose pieces for facilitating from the
molding box and are known as loose piece patterns.

 Loose parts or pieces remain attached with the main body of

the pattern, with the help of dowel pins.

 The main body of the pattern is drawn first from the molding
box and thereafter as soon as the loose parts are removed,
the result is the mold cavity.
Loose piece pattern
Loose piece pattern
 Match plate pattern
 It consists of a match plate, on either side of which each
half of split patterns is fastened.
 A no. of different sized and shaped patterns may be
mounted on one match plate.
 The match plate with the help of locator holes can be
clamped with the drag.
 After the cope and drag have been rammed with the
molding sand, the match plate pattern is removed from in
between the cope and drag.
 Match plate pattern
•Match plate patterns are normally used in machine
molding.

•By using this we can eliminate mismatch of cope and

drag cavities.
 Sweep pattern
 A sweep pattern is just a form made on a wooden board
which sweeps the shape of the casting into the sand all
around the circumference. The sweep pattern rotates
about the post.
 Once the mold is ready, Sweep pattern and the post can
be removed.
 Sweep pattern avoids the necessity of making a full,
large circular and costly three-dimensional pattern.
 Gated pattern
 The sections connecting different patterns serve as runner

and gates.

 This facilitates filling of the mould with molten metal in a

better manner and at the same time eliminates the time and
labour otherwise consumed in cutting runners and gates.

 A gated pattern can manufacture many casting at one time

and thus it is used in mass production systems.

 Gated patterns are employed for producing small castings.

 Skeleton pattern
A skeleton pattern is the skeleton of a desired shape
which may be S-bend pipe or a chute or something
else. The skeleton frame is mounted on a metal
base
The skeleton is made from wooden strips, and is
thus a wooden work.
The skeleton pattern is filled with sand and is
rammed.
 Skeleton pattern
•A strickle (board) assists in giving the desired shape to the sand
and removes extra sand.
•Skeleton patterns are employed for producing a few large
castings.
•A skeleton pattern is very economical, because it involves less
material costs.
Skeleton Pattern
 Follow Board attern
 A follow board is a wooden board and is used for
supporting a pattern which is very thin and fragile and
which may give way and collapse under pressure when the
sand above the pattern is being rammed.

 With the follow board support under the weak pattern, the
drag is rammed, and then the fallow board is with drawn,
The rammed drag is inverted, cope is mounted on it and
rammed.
 Follow Board attern

 During this operation pattern remains over the inverted drag

and get support from the rammed sand of the drag under it.

 Follow boards are also used for casting master patterns for
many applications.
Follow Board attern
 Cope and Drag Pattern
•A cope and drag pattern is another form of split pattern.

•Each half of the pattern is fixed to a separate

metal/wood plate.

•Each half of the pattern(along the plate) is molded

separately in a separate molding box by an independent
molder or moulders.
Cope and Drag Pattern
 Segmental Pattern
•Segmental Patterns are used for circular castings,
(for example wheel rim, gear blank etc) avoiding the
use of solid pattern of exact size.

•In principle they work like a sweep, but the

difference is that a sweep is given a continuous
revolving motion to generate the desired shape,
where as segmental pattern is a portion of the solid
pattern itself and the mould is prepared in parts by it.
 Segmental Pattern
•The movement of segmental pattern is guided by
the use of a central pivot.

•Segmental pattern is mounted on a central pivot and

after preparing the part mould in one position, the
segment is moved to the next position.

•The operation is repeated till the complete mould is

ready.
 Pattern materials
•Easily worked, shaped and joined
•Light in weight
•Strong, hard and durable
•Resistant to wear and abrasion
•Resistant to corrosion, and to chemical
reactions
•Dimensionally stable and unaffected by
variations in temperature and humidity
•Available at low cost
 Pattern materials
A. Wood – (teak, mahogany, white pine
etc)
B. Metal – (cast iron, brass, aluminium
white metal etc)
C. Plaster

D. Plastics

E. wax
•It is the commonly used material for pattern

•Laminated wooded sheets are also used for getting

accuracy , surface finish and long life

•Woods should not contain more than 10% moisture

•Metal spray coating may be given over the wooden

pattern up to the thickness of 0.25 mm

•Zinc and aluminium are normally used as metal

coating over the wood for good surface finish.
 Advantages and Limitations
 It is light in weight, cheap and easily available
 It is easy to cut, work and fabricate
 It can be easily repaired
 It can be easily smoothened by varnishes and paints
 LIMITATIONS:
 It absorbs water from sand and changes its shape
 It has non uniform structure
 It has high wear and tear by sand
 It can not be used for mass production
 It cannot be used in machine moulding
 Metal
 Metal pattern is used when large number of
castings are to be produced.
 It can be either cast from master piece or
may be machined by the usual method of
machining.
 Metal pattern can be used in machine
moulding
 Advantages and Disadvantages
 Advantages
 It has long life and accurate in size
 It has smooth surface
 Mass production is possible
 It does not absorb moisture and deform in size
 It can be used for rough handling
 It is resistance to wear , tear, abrasion and corrosion
 Disadvantages
 It is costlier and heavier than wood
 It can not be easily repaired
 It is difficult to make the required shape
 Other commonly used materials
 CAST IRON
 Cast iron having fine grain can be used for pattern
material. It has high resistance to sand abrasion and
smooth surface.
 It is heavier and difficult to work. Cost is less and
brittle material can be easily broken.
 BRASS
 Can be easily built up by soldering or brazing.
 Cost is high so this can be used for small size objects
 Good surface finish is obtained
 With stands wear and tear
 Aluminium
 It is light in weight, strong and easily machined
 Can be made with high accuracy and surface finish.
It will not be affected by moisture and rust.
 It has low melting point.
 Very soft and easily damaged by rough surface

PLASTER
 It has high compressive strength can be made easily
into difficult shapes.
 Can be used for small patterns. It is affected by
moisture
 Plaster of Paris
 Plaster of paris can be casted very easily to any
shape.

 It has a very high compressive strength and can be

used to make patterns of smaller sizes with close
dimension control.

 It has the property that it expands on solidification.

 In case proper plaster is selected the effect of

shrinkage is automatically neutralized.
 Plastics
 It can be cast from wooden pattern called master
pattern.
 It has many advantages over other pattern materials.
 It is light in weight but very strong. It is not affected
by moisture. Following plastics are widely used for
making patterns with the composition based on
epoxy, phenol formaldehyde and polyester resins
 Poly acrylates
 Poly ethylene
 Poly vinyle chloride etc
 Wax
 Wax pattern is primarily used in investment
castings.

 Commonly used waxes are paraffin wax,

shelloc wax and microcrystalline wax.

 It has good surface finish and high

dimensional accuracy

 It will not absorb moisture. Easy to work. Cost

is less. Used for small pattern
 Pattern allowances
 Patterns are not made into the exact size of the
castings. It is made slightly larger than the actual
size. The extra size given to the pattern is called
pattern allowances. It is given for the purpose of
compensating the metal shrinkage,
to provide extra metal which is to be
removed while machining, to avoid metal
distortion,
for easy removal of pattern from mould and
for rapping
 Various pattern allowances
 Shrinkage allowance
Machining or finish allowance

Draft or taper allowance

Distortion or camber allowance

Rapping or shake allowance

 Shrinkage Allowances
 Liquid Shrinkage: it refers to the reduction in
volume when the metal changes from liquid state
to solid state at the solidus temperature. To
account for this shrinkage; riser, which feed the
liquid metal to the casting, are provided in the
mold.

 Solid Shrinkage: it refers to the reduction in

volume caused when metal loses temperature in
solid state. To account for this, shrinkage
allowance is provided on the patterns.
 Shrinkage allowance
 Metal shrinks on solidification and contracts further
on cooling to room temperature.
 To compensate this, the pattern is made slightly larger
than the actual size of the casting
 This extra size provided on the pattern for metal
shrinkage is called shrinkage allowance.
 If it is not given, the casting will become smaller.
Material Shrinkage allowance
CI 10.4 mm/m
Al 17 mm/m
Brass 15.3 mm/m
Steel 20.8 mm/m
Zinc, Lead 25 mm/m
 Machining allowance
 The finish and accuracy achieved in sand casting are
generally poor and therefore when the casting is
functionally required to be of good surface finish or
dimensionally accurate, it is generally achieved by
subsequent machining.

 Machining or finish allowances are therefore added in the

pattern dimension.

 The amount of machining allowance to be provided for is

affected by the method of molding and casting used viz.
hand molding or machine molding, sand casting or metal
mold casting.
 Machining allowance
 The amount of allowance depends upon the various
factors. They are
 Material of the casting

 Size of the casting

 Volume of production

 Method of machining degree of accuracy etc

 Machining allowance various for hand moulding and

machine moulding
 Comparision of machining allowance for hand
moulding and machine moulding
Material Machining allowance

Machine Hand
moulding moulding
CI 2.5 mm 4.0 mm

Al 1.6 mm 3.2 mm

Bronze 1.6 mm 3.2 mm

Brass 1.6 mm 3.2 mm

Cast steel 3 mm 4.5 mm

 Draft or taper allowance
 By draft is meant the taper provided by the pattern
maker on all vertical surfaces of the pattern so that it
can be removed from the sand without tearing away
the sides of the sand mold and without excessive
rapping by the molder.
 Draft or taper allowance
 Pattern Having No Draft on Vertical Edges
 Draft or taper allowance
 Pattern Having Draft on Vertical Edges
 Draft or taper allowance
 Pattern Having Draft on Vertical Edges
 Draft or taper allowance
 Pattern Having Draft on Vertical Edges
 Distortion or camber allowance
 This is provided on patterns whose castings tend to
distort on cooling.
 The pattern itself is distorted suitably to yield a
proper shaped casting.
 Required for flat, long, ‘U’ and ‘V’ shaped castings.
 Rapping or shake allowance
 To remove the pattern from mould sand it
is necessary to rapped or shacked to
detach it from the mould cavity.

 This will make the mould cavity slightly

bigger than the actual size.

 To avoid this pattern is made slightly

smaller than the actual size
Special sand is used for making mould. It contains
the follwing three constituents
1. Refractory sand
2. Binder
3. Additive
Special moulding sand is used for the following
reasons
1.Maintains shape at very high temperature
2. Makes a mould porous
3.Can be used again and again
4.It is inexpensive
Silica sand is used as moulding sand. Silica has 80 to 90 % of
silicon dioxide. Silica gives refractoriness to the sand.
ADVANTAGES
1.It is cheap and easily available
2.It can be easily moulded and reusable
3.It has high thermal stability
Silica sand is the main constituent of the moulding sand.
According to the clay content, the moulding sand can be
classified as
1. Silica sand – 2 % clay
2. Learn or weak sand – 2 to 10 % clay
3. Moderately strong sand – 10 to 20% clay
4. Strong sand –up to 30% clay
5. Loam sand – up to 50% clay
It is available from natural deposits. It needs only
5 to 8% water.
These sands are available at river beds and it
contains 80 to 90 % silica, 5 to 10% Alumina or
clay and small percentage of lime and magnesia
It is also prepared by crushing and milling the soft
yellow sand stone.
This sand has less refractoriness as compared to
synthetic sand
It is used for making light castings in ferrous and
non- ferrous metal.
 ADVANTAGES

1.Cheap and easily available

2.Easy to repair
3.Wide range of grain sizes and
shapes are avilable
It has less refractoriness
It has high expansion ratio
It may be fused with metals
Synthetic sand
It is prepared artificially by mixing clay free
sand having specified grain type with
specified type of clay binder as well as water
and other additives.
It is used in machine moulding and high
pressure moulding
1. It has more uniform grain size
2. Required properties can be
obtained
3. It has higher refractoriness
4. It can be easily mouldable
LIMITATIONS
It is more expensive
It is prepared for obtaining specific properties
such as refractoriness, high heat conductivity and
low expansion ratio.
It is also prepared for applying particular place of
mould
By using this sand good quality mould with good
surface finish can be produced.
TYPES OF SPECIAL SAND
Zircon sand :Used for making cores of brass and
bronze castings. Used as facing sand. It does not
react with the moulding sand. It is fine sand
having good refractoriness and high density
It is used for making chilled
castings.
It is used as facing sand in steel
casting
It has good refractoriness
High heat conductivity
Low expansion ratio
It is used to bring the property of cohesiveness to the sand. They
bind the sand grains together and give strength to the moulding
sand

TYPES OF BINDERS
Organic binder
Used for core making. They are cereal, drying oil,
molasses, resins etc
Inorganic binder
Clay binder is most common type of inorganic
binder. It is formed by weathering and
decomposition of rocks. some of them are fire
clay, kaolinite, Bentonite
It is added to the mouldind sand to improve
the properties like strength, refractoriness and
permeability.
It is used to give good surface finish to the
casting or to eliminate casting defects
Additives are not used for binding purpose
Common additives
1. Sea coal
2. Saw dust
3. Pitch
4. Cereals
5. Silica flour
6. Special additive
It is finely powdered bituminous coal.
It is used to obtain smoother and cleaner
surfaces of castings and also reduces the
adherence of sand particles to the casting
It is mainly used to make ferrous castings.
When the molten metal is poured in to the
mould, coal dust burns and gives off CO2
and CO which form a gas spacing between
the mould wall and metals. This improves
permeability of the sand
It improves the permeability and
deformability of the moulds

It should be dry otherwise we can use peat

that contains about 70 to 73% of volatile
matter.
PITCH
oIt is distilled from soft coal
oIt improves hot strength
oIt gives fine surface finish
It is finely ground corn flour or corn
starch
It increases the green and dry strength of
sand.
Generally it is use about 1%
SILICA FLOUR
It is very fine powdered silica
It is generally mixed twice that of moulding
sand to prepare facing sand
It improves the surface finish of the casting
Fuel oil – improves the mouldability
Dextrin – increases the collapsibility
and setting strength
Molasses – improves dry strength and
collapsibility
Iron oxide – improves the hot strength
of the sand
 Types of Moulding sand
Green sand
Dry sand
Facing sand
Loam sand
Backing sand
Parting sand
 Green sand
 The sand which is in moist state is called green
sand
 It contains 5 to 8 % of water and 16 to 30% of clay
 It has good damping capacity
 It is soft light and porous
 It is used for simple small and medium size
casting
 Mould made out of this sand is called green sand
mould
 Dry sand
 Moulding sand is prepared in dry stage
 It is used for making large castings
 Mould prepared by using this sand is
called dry sand moulding
 It has greater strength and rigidity
 Does not cause defects by moisture
 Facing sand
It is used mainly to cover the face of the pattern and
comes to contact with molten metal
It contains silica, clay, talc, graphite, molasses etc
It has high refractoriness and strength

Loam sand
a) It contains fine silica sand, fine refractories, clay
graphite, fibre and water
b) It contains clay about 50%
c) Used for melting large castings like bell, roller,
pulleys etc
 Backing sand
 It is used to backup the facing sand and to fill
the whole volume of the mould box.
Parting sand
It is used when the casting is made up of two halves
with cope and drag boxes
It is used to avoid the sticking of cope and drag.
It is the mixture of silica sand and brick powder
It is also used to sprinkle over the pattern to avoid
sticking of green sand
 Properties of moulding sand
 Porosity or permeability
 Plasticity or flowability
 Adhesiveness
 Strength or cohesiveness
 Refractoriness
 Collapsibility
 Porosity or permeability
It is a measure of moulding sand by which the
sand allows the steam and gases to pass through
it.
When the molten metal is poured in to the
mould it reacts with additives, moisture, binder
and produce hot gases and steam. This has to be
removed from the mould otherwise it will form
blowholes in the mould which is one of the
defect in casting.
To avoid this sand should have good
permeability
 Contd-----
 Permeability of the moulding sand depend upon the
following factors
 1.Quality and quantity of clays and quartz
 2.Moisture content and degree of compactness
 These are some other parameters which affect the
permeability they are
If the clay content is less –permeability is more and
viceversa
If the grain size is large- Permeability is more and vice
versa
Soft ramming – improves permeabilioty
Higher the silica content on sand –lower the
permeability
 Plasticity or flowability
 It is a property of moulding sand by which the sand flows
aall over the pattern and uniformly fills the moulding
box.
 Thus it gives the shape of the pattern and retains the
sahpe after removing the pattern.
 This property can be improved by adding clay and water
to silica sand.
Adhesiveness
 This is the property of moulding sand by which it sticks to the
boxes
 Moulding sand should not fall from the box when it is turned
over
 This property depends upon the type and binder used in the
sand mix.
 Strength and cohesiveness
It is the property of the moulding sand by which it
sticks together
It should have sufficient strength so that the nmould
does not collapse or partially damaged during shifting
or turning or pouring the molten metal.

 Strength of the sand depends upon

The grain size and shape
Moisture content and density
 Refractoriness
This property is to resist the high
temperature of molten metal
It depends upon the purity of the sand
particles and their size
Rough and large grain increase the
refractoriness
Poor refractoriness will produce rough
surface in casting
 Collapsibility
 After solidification of the molten metal, the casting
is required to be removed from the mould.

 If the moulding sand is easily collapsible, free

contraction of the metal as well as easy removal of
the casting is possible.

 If the sand is not collapsible, it will strongly adhere

to the casting, becoming very hard to separate after
the metal is solidified and resulting in high cost of
fettling and finishing.
 Mouldind sand preparation
 Following steps are involved in preparation of moulding sand
1. Mixing of sand
2. Tempering of sand
3. Conditioning of sand
 Mixing of sand
 Mixing the sand with binders, additives and moisture
 If small quantity is required mixing is done with manually
using shovels. If large quantity is required mixing is done
by machine called muller.
 Initially remove foreign particles present in the sand by
magnetic separators and screens.
 Then sand clay additives are mixed in the muller continued
till uniform distribution of all ingredients takes place
 Tempering of sand
 The process of sparying and mixing adequate amount of
water with the sand in the muller is called tempering.
 It should be ensured that water is evenly distributed
throughout the sand.

Conditioning of sand
 Following steps to be adopted
 1.Removing foreign materials
 2.Distributing the binder uniformly
 3.Controlling the moisture
 4.Aerating the sand and
 5. Delivering at proper temperature
 Moulding hand tools
Shovel:
 It is a long steel pan with wooden handle.
 It is used for mixing sand clay and moisture
 It is also used for carrying sand from sand pit to
moulding box
 Moulding hand tools
Riddle
Steel wire fitted into the circular or square frame is
called riddle.
Used to remove foreign particles
 such as nail, stones etc.
Used for separating various sizes of sand grains.
 Rammer

It is used to ram or pack the sand in the box

It is made up of wood or metal
It has two ends one is in the shape of wedge
called peen end other is in the shape of
cylindrical known as butt end.
 Trowel
 It has a metal pan with short wooden handle
 Pan may be in different shapes
 It is used to smoothen the surface of the
mould and repair the damaged portions of
the mould.
 Slick
It is a spoon shaped double ended
trowel.
It is used for repairing small curved or
straight surfaces and round corners of
the mould.
 Strike – off - bar
It is made up of wood or metal
It has a straight edge
It is used to remove excess sand from
the mould after ramming
 Lifter
It is a bend and twisted blade as shown in fig
It is used to lift or loose sand from deep
mould
It is also used for repairing and finishing the
cavity and gates.
 Vent wire
It is a thin steel wire with handle
It is used to make small holes on the mould
after ramming
These holes permit the gases to pass out when
molten metal is poured.
 Sprue pin
It is a tapered cylindrical wooden pin
It is used to make a sprue hold in the cope.
The size of the sprue pin depends upon the
size of the mould.
Molten metal passes through this sprue hole
to the cavity.
 Riser pin
 It is also a tapered wooden rod
 Its size is smaller than the sprue pin
 It is used to make a riser in the cope box
 Gate cutter
It is a bend type sheet of metal
which is used to cut gates.
Gate is a passage between the
cavity and runner
 Draw spike
It is a pointed or threaded steel rod
with a ring at one end.
It is used to remove the pattern
from the mould
 Swab
It is a small brush
It is used to apply water around the pattern
It is used to sweep away the dust from the
pattern or excessive sand from mould joint
or used to give coating over the pattern.
 Bellows
 Used to blow off loose sand
particles from mould and pattern
 Mallet
It is a wooden hammer.
It is used to drive the draw spike in to
the pattern then lifts the pattern from
mould
 Moulding boxes
 It is a frame or box of wood or metal
which is used to hold the moulding
sand
 Moulding box may be in two or three
parts.
 Top part is called – cope box
 Middle box is called - cheek
 Bottom box is called - drag
 Core and core making
Core is a body made of sand which is used
to make a cavity or a hole in a casting.
The shape of the core is similar to that of the
cavity in the casting to be made.
It is also used to make recess, projections,
undercuts and internal cavities.
 Essential qualities of a core
 Permeability:
 This quality allows the steam and gases to pass through it
when the molten metal is poured.
 This property is given by uniform rounded grain of the sand.
 It depends up on the type and content of the binder
 Refractoriness:
 Withstanding in high temperature is called refractoriness
 This property may be increased by giving a thin coating of
graphite or similar metal to the surface of the core
 Strength
 This property depends upon the sand and binder
 This property can be increased by using sand with sharper
grains together
 Essential quality of the core
Collapsibility
 Lacks of this property leads to formation of cracks
in the casting when the molten metal cools.
 It can be increased by using oil binders in core
sand.
Stability
 Core should not expand or contract much due to
heat.
 Then only it will give true shape of the cavity.
 Types of Cores
According to the state of core
1. Green sand core
2. Dry sand core
 According to the position of core in the mould
 Horizontal core
 Vertical core
 Balanced core
 Hanging core
 Drop core
 Horizontal core

 Core is placed horizontally in the mould.

 It is very commonly used in foundries
 It is in cylindrical shapes
 It is supported in core seats at both ends
 Vertical core

These cores are positioned vertically in the

mould.
Two ends of the core rest on core seats in cope
and drag
Major portion of the core rests in the drag box.
 Balancing core

 This type of core is supported and balanced from its

end only.
 It requires long core seat so that the core does not fall
into the mould.
 It is used to produce blind holes along the horizontal
axis
 Hanging core

These cores are supported at the top and hung

into the mould.
It has no support from bottom.
It is used when a cored casting is to be
completely moulded in the drag with the help
of single piece pattern.
 Drop core

This is used when a hole is not in line with the

parting surface is to be produced.
Hole may be above or below the parting line of the
mould
Depending upon the use, it may be called as tail
core, chair core or saddle core.
 Various methods of testing of moulding sand
 Moisture content test
 Clay content test
 Grain finess test
 Permeability test
 Strength test
 Deformation and toughness test
 Hot strength test
 Refractoriness test
 Mould hardness test.
Moisture content test
Clay content test
Grain fineness test
 Grain fineness test
 Test is carried out on completely dry and clay free sand
 Apparatus has a set of known values of graded sieves placed one
over other in the order of decreasing sieve sizes from top to
bottom.
 Top is the coarsest one and the bottom is the finest one.
 Pan is placed at the bottom sieve
 Now the entire sieve is vibrated continuously for 15 minutes.
 Now the amount of sand in each sieve is weighed.
 The percentage distribution is found and it is multiplied by
factor called multiplication factor
 Each product is added and divided by the total percentage of
sand retained on the pan and each sieve to obtain AFS FINENESS
NUMBER.
 AFS grain fineness number = total product / total
percentage of sand retained on pan and each sieve.

Sieve No 6 1 20 30 40 50 70 100 140 200 270

2
Multiplic 3 5 10 20 30 40 50 70 100 140 200
ation
factor
 Permeability test
Permeability is defined as the
tendency of sand Which
allows the escape of gases
or air through it when the
molten metal is poured in
to the mould.

 Procedure to test

First sand clay and water

Mixed thoroughly to ensure
Uniform distribution.
 Using the apparatus , standard sand specimen of size 50.8
X 50.8 mm is prepared.

 This specimen is placed under the specimen pusher

 Pressure is applied by the weight through the specimen

pusher over the moulding sand.

 The applied pressure is measured by the dial gauge.

 After applying sudden impact with a particular pressure

the moulding sand gets compressed to a standard height
and diameter of 50.8 X 50.8mm in a cylindrical form
 Standard test method for determining
permeability
 2000 cc air is filled in the bell jar. This air is allowed to
pass through the sand specimen
 Level of mercury in the manometer changes to this
pressure
 At some time the air entering through the specimen is
equal to the air escaped through the specimen.
 This time there is no change in the mercury level in the
manometer
 Time is taken simultaneously for this period of 2000cc
sending through the specimen using stop watch.
 This specimen to be tested for permeability by using the
given formula
 Permeability number = VH/APT
 Where V – volume of air passed through the specimen =
2000cc
 H – height of the specimen = 50.8 mm
 A –Area of the specimen = 3.14/4 X 50.82
 T = time taken by 2000 cc of air
 P = pressure measured by gauge
 Strength test
 Compressive strength test
 Shear strength test
 Tensile strength test
 Deformation and toughness test
 Deformation is defined as the plasticity of sand that can be
tested by reducing the length of the specimen applying
compressive force on it.
 Higher deformation indirectly indicates the better capacity
of the mould which means it can with stand hydrostatic
pressure as well as volumetric contraction of the moulding
sand.
 The deformation of green compressive strength provides
the quality of sand mix termed as toughness
 Therefore toughness number can be determines as
 Toughness number = deformation X green
compressive strength
 Toughness refers to the ability of sand to withstand rough
handling and strain when the pattern is with drawn.
 Refractoriness test
Cylindrical specimen of standard dimension is made
on a sand specimen tester.
This specimen is placed under the fire for nearly
about 2hrs at 1550 o C continuously.
Note down the change in dimension and appearance
If the change in dimension is less than or equal to 7%
it will indicate a good refractory sand specimen
shape.
A less refractory sand specimen is indicated by more
shrinkage and distortion of the specimen.
 Mould hardness test
 Surface hardness indicates the ramming density of the actual
sand mould.

 The hardness of the moulding sand is tested in an

indentation hardness tester.

 The specimen is taken out and the dimension of the

indentation is measured.

 It can be determined as follows

 Mould hardness number = P

 ----------------

 D – D2 – d2
 Various methods of testing core sand
 Green strength test

 Permeability test

 Baked strength test

 Hot strength test

 Retained strength test

 Core hardness test

 Moisture content test

 Moulding machines
Types of moulding machines

 Jolting machine

 Squeezing machine

 Sand slinger
Special Casting Processes
 Shell Moulding
 Lost Wax Process
 Ceramic Moulding
 Permanent Mould Casting
 Centrifugal Casting
 Sodium Silicate Molding
 Stir Casting
Shell Moulding
 Shell Moulding
 Advantages

1. The amount of sand used is only one-twentieth of the sand

used in sand casting.

2. Can be easily adapted to mass production using automatic

equipments that will require minimum of skilled labour.

3. Shell moulds can be kept for a long time because cured resins
do not absorb moisture.

4. Shell moulds have relatively smooth walls, offering low

resistance to flow of molten metal and producing castings
with sharper comers, thinner sections, and smaller
projections that are impossible to achieve in green-sand
moulding.
 Shell Moulding
5.Shell moulds have relatively smooth walls and, therefore,
castings with a very smooth surface can be obtained. (In the
order of 3 to 5 microns is common.)
6. Use of cores is eliminated by forming internal cavities in the
shell mould itself.
7. Almost all metals can be cast by this process.
8. Complex shapes can be produced by employing relatively less
labour.
9. Castings are more accurate and have closer tolerances. In
most cases, tolerance values range between ± 0.20 to.± 0.35
mm.
10. High quality of casting produced leads to saving on cleaning,
machining and other finishing operation costs.
 Shell Moulding
Disadvantages

1. Shell sand has lower permeability than the sand used in

green-sand moulding as much finer sand is used in shell
moulding. Further, the decomposition of the shell-sand
binder produces a high volume of gas; trapped gas can cause
serious problems in ferrous castings.

2. The size of casting is generally a limitation. However, castings

up to 500 kg have been shell moulded nowadays.

3. Cost of pattern, resin, and other equipment is high.

Generally, this process is economical only if more than 15,000
castings are to be produced.
 Shell Moulding
 Applications
Small mechanical parts requiring high precision such as
 gear blanks,

 chain seat brackets,

 crank shafts (small),

 automobile transmission parts,

 cylinder and cylinder head for air cooled IC engines, etc.

 Investment Casting
 Steps Involved
1. Pattern making:

2. Pattern investment:

3. Pattern melting and removal:

4. Investment hardening:

5. Metal pouring and fettling of castings:

Investment Casting
 Investment Casting
Advantages
1. Most ferrous and non-ferrous metals can be cast.

This process is particularly suitable for casting of

alloys that are expensive, hard, difficult-to-machine,
and have high melting point and high strength.

2. It is possible to produce intricate shaped parts

weighing from 1g to 10 kg.

3. It is possible to produce parts as big as 1.5 m in

diameter with as thin walls as 1 mm.
 Investment Casting
Advantages
4. The parts produced have good surface finish with
matte appearance and close dimensional tolerances of
the order of ±5microns.

5. The parts produced do not normally need any further

machining or finishing operations.

6. This process is adaptable to automated mass

production.
 Investment Casting
Disadvantages
1. The moulds can only be used once.

2. The process is comparatively slow.

3. The costs incurred due to the investment material and

needed skill of labour are high.

4. The process is generally limited to small size and light

weight castings.
 Investment Casting
Applications

1. The process is particularly advantageous for making

small precision parts of intricate shapes.

2. Typical parts made from this process are mechanical

components such as gears, cams, valves, turbine
blades, turbo-supercharge buckets and vanes of jet
propelled engines.
Centrifugal Casting
Semi Centrifugal Casting
Centrifuging
 Centrifugal Casting
Advantages

1. Relatively very light impurities move inwards towards center. So they can be
removed easily thus helping in producing sound castings.

2. Gates and risers are not needed.

3. This technique is best suited for the mass production of symmetrical objects and
Castings yield is very high in some cases it is even equal to 100%.

4. Castings acquire high density, high mechanical strength and fine grained structure.

5. Inclusions and impurities are lighter.

6. These castings have a directional solidification starting from outside to inside.

 Centrifugal Casting
 Drawbacks

1. Skilled labors are to be employed for this process.

2. An inaccurate diameter of the inner surface of the casting.

3. Only some shapes can be generated by this casting process.

4. Not all alloys can be cast in this way.

5. Centrifugal castings require very high investments.

 Continuous Casting
 Continuous casting, also called strand casting, is the

process whereby molten metal is solidified into a

"semifinished" billet, bloom, or slab for subsequent

rolling in the finishing mills. ... This process is used most

frequently to cast steel (in terms of tonnage cast).

 Continuous Casting
 Used in general for the production of rods, pipes, sheet
metal and other articles known as semifinished
products in an uninterrupted process

 Main feature of the process is the pouring of molten

steel through a tower nearly 300 m high; this replaces
the casting of ingots, the removal of moulds from
ingots, the reheating of ingots and their primary rolling
 Continuous Casting
 Molten steel coming out from the furnace is accumulated in

a ladle.

 After undergoing requisite ladle treatments, such as alloying

and degassing, and arriving at the correct temperature, the

ladle is transported to the top of the continuous casting set-
up.

 From the ladle, the hot metal is transferred via a refractory

shroud (pipe) to a holding bath called a tundish.

 Continuous Casting
 The tundish holds enough metal to provide a
continuous flow to the mold, even while exchanging
ladles.

 The tundish can also serve as a refining vessel to float

detrimental inclusions (foreign solid particles composed
of brittle oxides) to the top surface.
 Continuous Casting
 Metal is then allowed to pass through a open base
copper mold. The mold is water-cooled to solidify the
hot metal directly in contact with it and removed from
the other side of the mold.

 The continuous casting process is used for casting metal

directly into billets or other similar shapes that can be
used for rolling.
 Continuous Casting
 The molten metal is then tapped from the tundish and travels
downward through Water-cooled copper molds, and begins to
solidify; it is drawn through the molds at a constant velocity
by rollers (called pinch rolls).

 Before starting the casting process, a solid starter bar (dummy

bar) is inserted into the bottom of the mold.

 When the molten metal is first poured, it freezes onto the

dummy bar. The bar is withdrawn at the same rate at which
the metal is poured.
 Continuous Casting
 The cooling rate is such that the metal develops a solidified skin
(shell), so as to support itself during its travel downward, typically at
speeds of about 25 mm/s.

 The shell thickness at the exit end of the mold is about 12 to 18 mm.

 Additional cooling is provided by water sprays along the travel path

of the solidifying metal. The molds generally are coated with
graphite or similar solid lubricants in order to reduce both friction
and adhesion at the mold-metal interfaces.

 Also, the molds are vibrated in order to reduce friction and sticking.
 Continuous Casting
 The continuously cast metal may be cut into desired

lengths by shearing or computer-controlled torch

cutting, or it may be fed directly into a rolling mill for
further reduction in thickness and for the shaping of
products such as channels and I-beams.

 In addition to costing less, continuously cast metals have

more uniform compositions and properties than those

obtained by ingot casting.
Continuous Casting - Advantages
 considerable energy savings

 less scrap produced,

 improved yield

 improved labor productivity

 improved quality of steel reduced pollution

 reduced capital costs

 increased use of purchased scrap when output is maximized

Continuous Casting – Disadvantages
 Continuous and capable cooling of moulds is required,
else centerline shrinkage devlops

 Just simple shapes can cast, which should have a stable

cross section

 Large capital investment is necessary to set up process

 Not proper for small amount of production

 Requires large ground space

 Permanent Mould Casting
 Die casting process uses a re-usable mould, i.e., metallic
die and, therefore, it is also known by the term
permanent mould process.

 The gating and riser systems are machined into the die
itself
 Permanent Mould Casting
 Classifications

 Pressure Die Casting

 Hot chamber casting

 Cold chamber casting

 Slush casting

 Low-pressure casting

 Vacuum permanent-mold casting

 Die Casting
 Die casting is a metal casting process that is
characterized by forcing molten metal under high
pressure into a mould cavity, which is created using two
hardened tool steel dies which have been machined into
shape and work similarly to an injection mold during the
process.

 Most die castings are made from non-ferrous metals,

specifically zinc, copper, aluminium, magnesium, lead,
powder and tin based alloys.
Die Casting
 Die Casting
 The weight of most castings ranges from less than 90 g to
about 25 kg.

 Equipment costs, particularly the cost of dies, are

somewhat high, but labor costs are generally low, because
the process is semi- or fully automated.

 Die casting is economical for large production runs.

 In the die-casting process, molten metal is forced into the

die cavity at pressures ranging from 0.7 to 700 MPa.

 Two basic types of die-casting machines:

 hot-chamber and cold-chamber machines.
 Die Casting
 Metals like Zinc, tin and lead alloys are casted in hot
chamber die casting having melting point below 390 0C
whereas aluminum alloys are casted in cold chamber die
casting machine.

 Aluminum dissolves ferrous parts in the die chamber and

hence preferred to be used in cold chamber die casting.

 Continuous contact of molten metal is avoided by using a

ladle for introducing molten metal directly to the machine.
Hot Chamber - Die Casting
Hot Chamber - Die Casting
 Hot Chamber - Die Casting
 The hot-chamber process involves the use of a piston, which
forces a certain volume of metal into the die cavity through a
gooseneck and nozzle.

 Pressures range up to 35 MPa, with an average of about 15

MPa.

 The metal is held under pressure until it solidifies in the die.

 To improve die life and to aid in rapid metal cooling (thereby

reducing cycle time) dies usually are cooled by circulating
water or oil through various passageways in the die block.
 Hot Chamber - Die Casting
 Low-melting-point alloys (such as zinc, magnesium, tin,
and lead) commonly are cast using this process.

 Cycle times usually range from 200 to 300 shots

(individual injections) per hour for zinc, although very
small components, such as zipper teeth, can be cast at
rates of 18,000 shots per hour.
Cold Chamber - Die Casting
Cold Chamber - Die Casting
 Die Casting - Advantages
1. High production rate is possible

2. Thin sections and complex shapes can be obtained

3. High precision of the cast components.

4. Much closer dimensional tolerances (3 mm/m is

common).

5. Improved surface finish (of the order of 1 micron).

 Die Casting - Advantages
6. Greater soundness and compactness of casting. (Fewer
defective castings.)

7. Better mechanical properties of the casting due to the

fine-grained skin formed during the solidification
process.

8. Requires less work training; therefore, low labour cost

per casting.

9. Requires less floor space compared to other processes

for the same production rate.

10. Process can be easily automated.

 Die Casting - Disadvantages
1. Cost of dies and equipments is high.
2. Maximum size of casting is limited due to limited machine
capacity.
3. Entrapment of air in the die cavity while injecting the molten
metal is a serious problem.
4. Die life decreases with an increase in the molten metal
temperature.
5. Metallic parts having a larger coefficient of contraction need to
be removed quickly from the die; otherwise, casting removal
from the die becomes difficult.
6. Maintenance and supervisory staff need to be skilled, though
special skills are not required from machine operators.
 Die Casting - Applications
 Non-ferrous alloys which have base metals as zinc,
aluminium, copper, magnesium, lead, and tin can be cast
by this process.

 Typical applications are for casting of hand tools,

appliances, automotive components, motor frames and
housings, plumbing fixtures, household utensils, building
hardware, and toys.


 Slush Casting
 Slush casting is a variation of permanent mold casting
that is used to produce hollow parts.

 In this method neither the strength of the part nor its

internal geometry can be controlled accurately.

 This metal casting process is used primarily to

manufacture toys and parts that are ornamental in
nature, such as lamp bases and statues.
Slush Casting
Slush Casting
 Slush Casting
 When producing a cast part using the slush casting method, a
permanent mold is employed and set up. The mold is clamped
together and prepared for pouring.

 After pouring the mold will set, as solidification begins to take

place.

 The main principle of this casting process relies on the fact

that when a metal casting hardens in a mold, it will solidify
from the mold wall towards the inside of the casting.

 In other words a metal skin forms first, (as the external

geometry of the part). This skin thickens as more of the metal
casting's material converts to a solid state.
 Slush Casting
 In slush mold casting, during the solidification of the
material, when the solid-liquid boundary has reached a
certain point, the mold is turned over and the remaining
liquid metal from the casting is poured out.

 This will leave only the solidified skin with the exterior
geometry of the metal cast part and a hollow interior. The
longer the metal casting was allowed to solidify before
pouring out the excess metal, the greater the casting's wall
thickness will be.

 The cast part is then removed from the die and allowed to
cool.
 Slush Casting
 Slush casting is mainly suited to lower melting point materials, zinc,
tin, or aluminum alloys are commonly slush cast in manufacturing
industry.

 With this process you need to have a mechanical means of turning

over the mold in order to pour out the molten metal from the cast
part.

 When manufacturing by slush casting it is difficult to accurately

control the metal casting's strength and other mechanical
properties.

 The casting's internal geometry cannot be effectively controlled with

this process.

 The hollow metal castings manufactured by this process are lighter

than solid parts and save on material.

 Good surface finish and accurate exterior geometry are possible with
the slush casting manufacturing process.
CO2 Process (Sodium Silicate Molding
Process)
CO2 Process (Sodium Silicate Molding
Process)
 The dry silica sand is thoroughly mixed with 20% to 40%
Sodium silicate, an organic binder which is a viscous
fluid.

 The sand particles get coated with a thin film of the

binder. The silica mix is packed around the pattern in a
flask in the usual manner.

 For molds, the sand mixture can be compacted manually,

jolted or squeezed around the pattern in the flask.
CO2 Process (Sodium Silicate Molding
Process)
 After compaction, CO2 gas of 1.4 - 1.5 bar is passed
through the core or mold.
 The CO2 chemically reacts with the sodium silicate to
cure, or harden, the binder. This cured binder then holds
the refractory in place around the pattern.
 After curing, the pattern is withdrawn from the mold.
 The sand mixture remains soft and mouldable until it is
exposed to CO2 gas, when it hardens in a fraction of a
minute.
CO2 Process (Sodium Silicate Molding
Process)
 The sodium silicate process is one of the most
environmentally acceptable of the chemical processes
available.

 The major disadvantage of the process is that the binder

is very hygroscopic and readily absorbs water, which
causes porosity in the castings.

 Also, because the binder creates such a hard, rigid mold

wall, shakeout and collapsibility characteristics can slow
down production.
CO2 Process (Sodium Silicate Molding
Process) - Advantages
 A hard, rigid core and mold are typical of the process,
which gives the casting good dimensional tolerances;

 Good casting surface finishes are readily obtainable.

Stir Casting
 Stir Casting
 Stir casting is a liquid state method of composite materials
fabrication, in which a dispersed phase (ceramic particles,
short fibers) is mixed with a molten matrix metal by means of
mechanical stirring.

 The liquid composite material is then cast by conventional

casting methods and may also be processed by conventional
Metal forming technologies,

 Factors

 To achieve uniform distribution of the reinforcement material

 To achieve wettability between the two main substances

 To minimize porosity in the cast metal matrix composite

 Stir Casting
 Numerous particulate like SiC, Al2O3, B4C, TiC and
ZrSiO4 is used to improve the metallurgical as well as
mechanical properties as compared to its base matrix.

 Industrial and agro waste like fly ash, bauxite residue,

groundnut shell, rice husk ash as reinforcement in
matrix phase.
 Stir Casting
 Reinforcement is added forcefully in to the molten stage
of aluminium and to obtain homogeneity during
solidification of fabricated composite are depends on
following factors.

 Stirring speed and time

 Stirring blade angle

 Pouring temperature and solidification rate

 Reinforcement’s size, percentage and its relative density

 Ceramic Moulding

The ceramic moulding process is similar to the plaster moulding process,

with the difference that ceramic moulding uses a refractory material for the
mould, thereby making the moulds suitable for casting ferrous and other high-
temperature alloys. Commonly used mould materials a slurry consisting of fine
grained zircon (ZrSi04), aluminium oxide, and fused silica to which some
bonding agents are added.
 Ceramic Moulding
1. Pattern making: The pattern may be made of wood,
thermo-setting plastic, brass, or aluminium alloy.

2. Slurry making: A mixture of fine-grained zircon

(ZrSi04); aluminium oxide, and fused silica is prepared.

Bonding agents are mixed thoroughly to the mixture to

form homogeneous slurry.

 3. Mould making: The pattern is placed in a flask. Some

parting agent such as an oil or grease is applied over the
pattern surface.
 Ceramic Moulding
 The slurry is poured over the pattern. Enough number of coatings of
slurry is applied so that the mould (also called ceramic facing) is
about 5 mm thick. After initial setting in the air, the ceramic facing is
removed from the pattern and placed in an oven for drying and
baking.

 The mould-halves are clamped firmly as soon as they are taken out
from the oven so that metal can be poured while the mould is hot.

 In the Shaw process, the assembled ceramic facings are placed in a

flask. The empty space around the assembled facings is filled with
fire clay as back-up material to give support and strength to the
mould.
 Ceramic Moulding
 4. Casting: Molten metal is poured in the hot mould
cavity.
 Stainless steels, tool steels and other ferrous alloys can be
cast as the refractory moulding materials have high-
temperature resistance.
 It is possible to produce intricate shaped castings in a
wide range of sizes weighing up to 500 kg.
 The castings produced have good dimensional accuracy
and surface finish. The main limitation of this process is
that it is relatively expensive. Typical parts made by this
process are dies for metal working, dies for making
plastic and rubber components, impellers, and
components of tanks and gas engines.
 Casting Defects
Categories of Casting defects

1. Metallic Projections

2. Cavities

3. Discontinuities

4. Defective Surface

5. Incomplete Casting

6. Incorrect Dimensions or Shape

7. Inclusions or Structural Anomalies

 DEFECTS IN CASTING
1. Gas defects

2. Shrinkage cavities

3. Molding Material Defects

4. Pouring Metal Defects

5. Metallurgical defects
 Gas Defects
 Blow Holes

 Open Blows

 Air Inclusion

 Pin Hole Porosity

 Blow Holes and Open Blows
 Blowholes generally appear as smooth walled, round voids or
cavities opened to the casting surface.

 Blowholes are caused due to the entrapped bubbles of gas

with smooth walls, excessive moisture in the moulding sand,
low permeability of sand, hard ramming of sand or gas
producing ingredients in the mould.

 They may occur in clusters or there may be one large smooth

depression.
 Blow Holes and Open Blows
 Remedial measures:
- Adequately dry cores
- Larger proportion of new sand
- Better gas permeability
- Smaller proportion of binder
- Reduce moisture content of the sand
 Air Inclusions
 The atmospheric and other gases absorbed by the
molten metal in the furnace or during the flow in the
mold, when not allowed to escape would be trapped
in the casting and weaken it.

 High pouring temperature increase the amount of

gas absorbed

 Or due to poor gating design such as straight sprues

in unpressurized gating, abrupt bends and
turbulence causing practices in the gating which
increase the air aspiration and

 Low permeability of the mold itself.

 Pin Hole Porosity
 Agglomeration of small, rounded cavities up to around 5 mm
in size. Surface of the cavities mostly smooth and polished,
occasionally with graphite. clearly visible pinholes in the
casting skin; surface is often oxidised
 Pin Hole Porosity
 Remedial measures:
- Optimise mould material
Water content
Nitrogen content

- Nitrogen content in iron; set-point value < 80 ppm

 Shrinkage defects
 When the metals solidify, there is a volumetric
shrinkage, and if adequate feeding does not
compensate for the shrinkage, voids will occur
inside the casting.

 This defect can be prevented by adequate feeding of

the molten metal and designing a gating system to
enable directional solidification.
 Hot Tears
 Hot tears are internal or external ragged discontinuities
or crack on the casting surface, caused by rapid
contraction occurring immediately after the metal
solidified.

 They may be produced when the casting is poorly

designed and abrupt sectional changes take place; no
proper fillets and corner radii are provided, and chills are
inappropriately placed.

 Hot tear may be caused when the mold and core have
poor collapsibility or when the mold is too hard causing
the casting to undergo severe strain during cooling.
 Hot Tears
 Incorrect pouring temperature and improper placement
of gates and risers can also create hot tears.

 Method to prevent hot tears may entail improving the

casting design, achieving directional solidification and
even rate of cooling all over, selecting proper mold and
poured materials to suit the cast metal, and controlling
the mold hardness in relation to other ingredients of
sand.
Hot tears
 Cold Shut and Mis-Run
 A misrun casting is one that remains incomplete due to
the failure of metal to fill the entire mould cavity.

 This can happen when the dimensions of a casting is very

less or the metal temperature is too cold, so that the
entire section is not filled before the metal solidifies. This
defect is called a misrun.

 When two streams of metal, which are too cold, meet

inside the mould cavity and do not fuse together, the
defect is known as cold shut.
 Cold Shut and Mis-Run
 In cold shut, a discontinuity is formed due to the
imperfect fusion of two layers of metal in the mould
cavity and the defect may appear like a crack or seam with
smooth rounded edges.

 When the metal cavity is not completely filled because of

insufficient metal, the defect is called pour short.
 Inclusions
 Any separate undesirable foreign material present within
the metal of a casting is known as inclusion.

 An inclusion may be oxides, slag, dirt, etc., which enters

the mould cavity along with the molten metal during
pouring.

 To avoid inclusions, molten metal should be skimmed of

before pouring into the mould cavity and all loose sand
should be blown off before closing the moulds.
 Inclusions
 Any separate undesirable foreign material present within
the metal of a casting is known as inclusion.

 An inclusion may be oxides, slag, dirt, etc., which enters

the mould cavity along with the molten metal during
pouring.

 To avoid inclusions, molten metal should be skimmed of

before pouring into the mould cavity and all loose sand
should be blown off before closing the moulds.
 Melting furnaces
It can be classified as

 Cupola furnace – cast iron

 Open hearth furnace – steel

 Crucible furnace – for non ferrous metal

Cupola Furnace
 Cupola Furnace - Parts
(i) Shell
(ii) Foundation
(iii) Charging Door
(iv) Charging Platform
(v) Air Blower
(vi) Tuyeres
(vii) Volume Meter
(viii) Tap Hole (Molten Metal
Hole)
(ix) Slag Hole
(x) Chimney
 Cupola Furnace
(i) Shell:

 The shell is constructed of a steel plate of about 10 mm

thick riveted or welded together and that is internally
lined with refractory fireclay bricks. The shell diameter
varies from 1 to 2 meters with a height of about three to
five times the diameter.
 Cupola Furnace
(ii) Foundation:

The whole structure is erected on legs or steel columns. A

drop door, which is made of one piece, is hinged to a

supporting leg. When the cupola is full of charge, a prop

support at the bottom door is provided so that door remains

close and do not collapse due to the heavy weight of the

charge. If the cupola is not in use, the drop door allows for

maintenance and repair work of the furnace lining.

 Cupola Furnace
(iii) Charging Door:
Towards the top of the furnace there is an opening called charging
door is situated. The charging door is used for feeding the charge
containing metal, coke and flux, into the furnace. It is situated at
the height of about 3 to 6 m above the tuyers.

(iv) Charging Platform:

The charging platform is made of robust mild steel rods and plates.
Usually, it is surrounding the cupola at the level of about 0.3 m
below the bottom of the charging door.
 Cupola Furnace
(v) Air Blower:
 An air blower is connected to the wind box by means of blast
pipe. It supplies the air to the wind box. A valve is provided in
the blast pipe to control the flow of air. The blast pressure
varies from 250 kg/m2 to 1050 kg/m2.

(vi) Tuyeres:
Air, which is needed for the combustion is blown through the
tuyeres located about 36 inches (0.9 m) above the bottom of
the furnace. Total area of the tuyeres should be 1/5 to 1/6 of the
cross-section area of the cupola inside the lining at tuyere
level.
 Cupola Furnace
(vii) Volume Meter:
The volume meter is installed in a cupola furnace to
know the volume of air passing. The amount of air
needed to melt one tone of iron depends upon the quality
and quantity of coke and coke iron ratio.

(viii) Tap Hole (Molten Metal Hole):

Slightly above the bottom and in the front there are a tap
hole to allow molten cast iron to be collected.
 Cupola Furnace
(ix) Slag Hole:

 There is also a slag hole located at the rear and above the level of the
tap hole because slag floats on the surface of molten cast iron.

(x) Chimney:

The portion of shell above charging hole is known as chimney. Its

height is generally 4 to 6 m. The chimney is provided with a filter
screen and a spark arrester. This facilitates a free escape of the waste
gases and deflects the sparks and the dust back into the furnace.
 Various Zones in Cupola
 Combustion zone or Oxidizing Zone

 Reducing zone

 Melting zone

 Preheating zone

 Stack
 Combustion zone or Oxidizing Zone
 The total height of this zone is normally from 15 cm. to 30 cm.

 The combustion actually takes place in this zone by

consuming the free oxygen completely from the air blast and
generating tremendous heat.
 The heat generated in this zone is sufficient enough to meet
the requirements of other zones of cupola.
 The heat is further evolved also due to oxidation of silicon and
manganese.
 A temperature of about 1540°C to 1870°C is achieved in this
zone.
C + O2 → CO2 + Heat
Si + O2 → SiO2 + Heat
2Mn + O2 → 2MnO + Heat
 Reducing Zone
 In this zone, CO2 is changed to CO through an
endothermic reaction, as a result of which the
temperature falls from combustion zone temperature to
about 1200°C at the top of this zone.

 CO2 + C (coke) → 2CO + Heat

 Melting Zone
 The lower layer of metal charge above the lower layer of
coke bed is termed as melting zone of Cupola. The metal
charge starts melting in this zone and drop down through
coke bed and gets collected in the well.

 Sufficient carbon content picked by the molten metal in

this zone is represented by the chemical reaction given as
under.

3Fe + 2CO → Fe3C + CO2

 Preheating Zone
 Preheating zone starts from the upper end of the melting zone and

continues up to the bottom level of the charging door. This zone contains a

number of alternate layers of coke bed, flux and metal charge.

 The main objective of this zone is to preheat the charges from room

temperature to about 1090°C before entering the metal charge to the

melting zone. The preheating takes place in this zone due to the upward

movement of hot gases.

 During the preheating process, the metal charge in solid form picks up

some sulphur content in this Zone.

 Stack Zone
 The empty portion of cupola above the

preheating zone is called as stack. It provides

the passage to hot gases to go to atmosphere

from the cupola furnace.

 Melting Furnaces for Non ferrous Metals

 Crucible Furnaces

 Pit Type

 Coke fired Stationary

furnace

 Tilting
Pit Furnace
 Pit Furnace
The crucible is placed in a pit below the ground level.

Furnace is made of steel shell with a grate and pit at its

bottom fired with coke.

The steel shell above the grate is fired with fire bricks.

Metal charge is pig iron which is placed in the crucible.

Coke is placed around and above the crucible.

The fuel is ignited and allowed to burn.

After reaching maximum combustion, the coke above the

crucible is shifted to the sides and it is covered with a lid .

Blower is provided for necessary air.

Coke Fired Stationary Furnace
 Coke Fired Stationary Furnace
 This furnace is used for melting non ferrous metals in
small quantity.

 This furnace is placed above the floor level.

 The crucible is placed in the heating chamber.

 The heating chamber is lined with refractories.

 Coke is used as fuel. Forced draft is used.

 A blower is used for supply of air.

 OIL FIRED TILTING FURNACE
 This furnace is used for melting non ferrous metals in small
quantity and is fired by oil.

 This furnace is mounted on two pedestals above the floor level.

 For pouring the molten metal, the furnace is rotated by the

geared hand wheel.

 Oil and air are admitted with pressure through a nozzle.

 The crucible is placed in the heating chamber and is heated by

the flame.

 The furnace can be stopped whenever needed & temperature

can be controlled easily.

 They give lesser pollution.

 OIL FIRED TILTING FURNACE
 This furnace is used for melting non ferrous metals in small
quantity and is fired by oil.

 This furnace is mounted on two pedestals above the floor level.

 For pouring the molten metal, the furnace is rotated by the

geared hand wheel.

 Oil and air are admitted with pressure through a nozzle.

 The crucible is placed in the heating chamber and is heated by

the flame.

 The furnace can be stopped whenever needed & temperature

can be controlled easily.

 They give lesser pollution.