ME18303 MATERIAL CHARACTERIZATION

AND METALLURGY

III semester Mechanical Engineering

SVCE
 Course Description
• This course covers the basics of material
engineering & solid solution, phase diagrams,
Fe-C diagram and TTT or IT diagram.

• Heat treatment of steels.

• The classification, properties of: steels, cast

irons, non-ferrous metals.

• Polymers, ceramics and composite materials.

• Characterization of Materials.
Material Science Vs Material Engineering
What is Material ?
•Basic substance that have mass and occupy space
•It can be natural or human made
•There are now about 300,000 different known materials

What is Materials Science?

•Materials science involve investigating the relationships
that
exist between the structure and properties of materials

What is Materials Engineering?

•Materials engineering involve, on the basis of these
structure property correlation, design/engineer the
structure of a material to produce a predetermined set of
properties
 Material Scientist Vs Material Engineer

Who is Materials Scientist?

•To develop/synthesize new materials

Who is Materials Engineer?

•To create new product/systems using existing
materials
•To develop new techniques for processing
materials
Four components that involve in the design,
production and utilization of materials?
1.Structure
→?
2.Property
→?
Classification: mechanical, electrical, thermal,
magnetic, optical and deteriorative/chemical.
3.Processing
→?
4.Performance
→?
The relationship between the four components:
Process of Materials
Classification of Engineering Materials
 ENGINEERING MATERIAL

Metallic Material
Modern Ceramics
Heat resistance material
Tradition Ceramics
 Why Study Materials Science and Engineering?

To be able to select a material for a given use based on

considerations of cost and performance.

To understand the limits of materials and the change of

their properties with structure and use.

To be able to create a new material that will have some

desirable properties.

It is always new materials that open the door to new

technologies, whether they are in civil, chemical,
construction, nuclear, aeronautical, agricultural,
mechanical, biomedical, electrical etc.
• Materials are probably more deep-seated in our
culture than most of us realize.

• Transportation, clothing, housing and food

production process etc.-virtually every segment
of everyday life is highly influenced by
materials.

• Historically, development and advancement of

society is depending upon members ability to
manipulate and process the materials for their
needs.
• The earliest humans had access only to few
natural materials like wood, clay and stone.

• With time they discovered the techniques to

produce different materials with superior
properties than those conventional materials.

• Further more it was discovered that properties

of materials can be altered by heat treatment
and by adding some other substances.

• Hence thousand of materials are available now

a days with specialized characteristics to meet
the need of this modern society.
 These materials includes metals, plastics,
glasses and fibers.

 Now the selection of appropriate material

for specific application is tedious.

 Hence it is very much important that as

an engineer we must have the strong
knowledge about different types of
materials and their properties.

 Study of Materials science and Metallurgy

impart this knowledge.
▪ Many an applied scientist or engineer, whether mechanical,
civil, electrical or electronics will at one time be exposed to
a design and selection problem involving materials.

▪ Examples selection of materials for transmission gear,

superstructure for a building, an oil refinery component, or
an integrated circuit chip.

▪ Many times, a materials problem is one of selecting the

right material from the many thousands that are available.

▪ There are several criteria on which the final decision is

normally based for practical applications.
▪ The first and important condition is in-service conditions.

▪ A second selection consideration is any deterioration of

material properties that may occur during service
operation. For example, significant reductions in
mechanical strength may result from exposure to elevated
temperatures or corrosive environments.

▪ Finally, probably the overriding consideration is that of

economics: What will the finished product cost? A material
with ideal set of properties must be expensive.

▪ Here again, some compromise is inevitable while selecting

materials
 Columbia Space Shuttle

Born March 17, 1962

Karnal, Punjab (present-day Haryana), India
Died February 1, 2003 (aged 41)
Aboard Space Shuttle Columbia over Texas, U.S.
Columbia space shuttle was 231,000 feet above the California coastline
traveling at 23 times the speed of sound—that the first indications of trouble
began. Because the heat-resistant ceramic covering the left wing’s leading edge
had been damaged or were missing, When Columbia re-entered the
atmosphere of Earth, the damage allowed hot atmospheric gases to penetrate
and destroy the internal wing structure, which caused the spacecraft to become
unstable and break apart
 History and
Introduction: Engineering
Materials
 Materials :“Drivers” of our Society
✓ Rooted in our culture and have
influence over virtually every segment
of our daily lives –

❖ Transportation
❖ Housing
P. K Kelkar library, IIT Kanpur Fighter Craft
❖ Clothing Image: Ontario sea plane association

❖ Communication
❖ Recreation, etc.

✓ Early civilizations have been

designated by materials development:
❖ Stone Age
Home Antenna
❖ Bronze Age Image: www.goes-r.gov

❖ Iron Age World of materials

 Stone Age
• The term “Stone Age”
was coined in the late
19th century by the
Danish scholar
Christian J. Thomsen.
• Roughly extended
between 15000-2000
BC.
• Characterized by
creation and use of
stone tools.
• Wood, bones and
other materials were
also used as tools but
have shorter life.
Stone Age Tools
 Bronze Age
• Roughly extend between
3500-500 BC.
• Beginning of metal working.
• Copper was mixed with tin,
to create a new alloy
BRONZE, which was
Neck collar of Gold Daggers (kind of knife) and Swords
stronger than the other two Image: http://www.britishmuseum.org/
Image : The Archaeology Gallery at West Stow,England
metals individually.
• Used for tools, weapons,
armor, decoration, etc.

Axe Head
Image: Kenilworth Abbey Barn Museum, UK

Spartan Armor
Image: Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
 Bronze Age – India
• Begins around 3000 BC.
• Development of Indus valley Civilisation/ Harappa
Culture, first ever urban civilisation.
• The famous Dancing Girl is a bronze statuette
(10.5 cm high) casted using the lost wax Indus valley civilization
method and dating around 2500 B.C., from the
Mohenjo-daro site, Sindh (now in Pakistan) of
the Indus Valley Civilization.
• Found by Ernest Mackay in 1926.
• Although it is in standing position, it was
named "Dancing Girl" with an assumption of
her profession – 25 bangles in left and 4
bangles in her right hand.

Ceramic Pot, Indus valley

Image: www.antiques.com
Dancing Girl
 Iron Age
• It is the last stage of the archaeological sequence known as the three-age system
(Stone Age, Bronze Age, & Iron Age).

• The Iron Age began about 3000 years ago and continues till today. Use of iron and
steel has changed drastically the human development.

• Witnessed industrial revolution.

• Improved modes of transportation –Automobiles, Railways and aero planes.

Transportation modes
IRON PILLAR OF DELHI
•Iron age in South-Asia begins around 1200
B.C
•IRON PILLAR OF DELHI (around 1600 year
old) called as “a testament to the skill of
ancient Indian blacksmiths”.
•Solid shaft of wrought iron (high
phosphorous content) about 7m tall, 0.4 m
diameter weighing over 6,000 kg.
•High resistance to corrosion results from an
even layer of crystalline iron hydrogen
phosphate hydrate, which serves to protect
it from the effects of the local Delhi
climate.

Iron Pillar, Qutab Minar Complex, New Delhi, India

 World's First Cast Iron Bridge
• Built over the River Severn in
Shropshire, England.
• First arch bridge in the world
to be made of Cast Iron.
• Opened in the year 1781.
• Longest span = 31m

The Iron Bridge, England

The Steel Story
Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon (less than 2% by weight) added with other alloying
elements such as sulphur, phosphorous, manganese, chromium, etc. to achieve variety
of properties.

13th Century BC : Early blacksmiths discovered that iron became harder and stronger
when left in charcoal furnaces.
3rd CenturyBC : “Wootz Steel (Ancient India)”
The craftsmen of southern India used crucibles to smelt wrought iron
with charcoal to produce ‘Wootz’ steel – still admired today.
Roman Era : The Romans learned how to temper work-hardened steel to reduce its
brittleness
3rd century AD : Chinese created steel by melting together wrought iron with cast iron
 Steel lifeline – Rail track
• World has total rail network of about 16 lakh km
length.
• India has 4th longest railway network (65,000 km) after
USA(2.5L), China(1.2L) and Russia(86k).
• Rail steel contains carbon(0.6-0.8%), and other
Diamond Crossing, Nagpur*
alloying elements such as Mn, Si, S, P, Mo, Cr, V to *Place where India crosses from
produce hard, wear & corrosion resistant rails. East to West and North to South.

International rail track Pamban Rail Bridge, Rameshwaram, Tamil Nadu Dudhsagar falls track, Goa
(Atari, India - Lahore, Pakistan)
 Howrah Bridge
• Howrah Bridge is a suspension
type Balanced Cantilever bridge
over the Hooghly River in Kolkata,
West Bengal, India.

• World’s 6th longest cantilever

bridge (Longest span = 457 m).
1st - Quebec Bridge (1917), Canada
(longest span - 549m span).
• Official name: Rabindra Setu,
named after Gurudev
“Rabindranath Tagore” (first Asian
Nobel laureate).
• Commissioned in 1943.
• Total length - 705m Height - 82 m Howrah Bridge, Kolkata
• Material – Steel, supplier TATA
Steel
• Consumed about 26,500 tons of
steel, no bolts and nuts used - only
Rivets.
Scientific age
Scientific age
Summary: Material Evolution

Reference: Ashby, Material Selection in Mechanical Design, 4 Ed.

BCC CRYSTAL STRUCTURE

Number of atoms=2
FCC CRYSTAL STRUCTURE

Number of atoms=4
HCP CRYSTAL STRUCTURE

Number of atoms=6

C/a=1.633
Crystal Structure for some Metals (at room temperature)

Aluminum FCC Nickel FCC

Cadmium HCP Niobium BCC

Chromium BCC Platinum FCC

Cobalt HCP Silver FCC

Copper FCC Titanium HCP

Gold FCC Vanadium BCC

Iron BCC Zinc HCP

Lead FCC Zirconium HCP

Magnesium HCP
 ALLOY
An alloy is a mixture or metallic solid solution composed of
two or more elements.

An alloy is a mixture of fairly pure elements, which forms an

impure substance that has the characteristics of a metal.

Alloys are made by mixing two or more elements; at least

one of which is a metal.

This is usually called the primary metal or the base metal,

and the name of this metal may also be the name of the
alloy.

The other constituents may or may not be metals but, when

mixed with the molten base, they will be soluble, dissolving
into the mixture.
Alloys may be prepared by different technological methods:
melting, sintering of a powders mixture, high temperature
diffusion of an alloying element into the base metal, plasma
and vapor deposition of different elements, electroplating
etc.

Alloy structure may be a single phase or a multi phase.

Phase

Phase is a physically uniform part of an alloy having a

certain chemical composition and structure, and which is
separated from other alloy constituents by a phase
boundary.
(or)
Physically distinct and mechanically separable portion of
solid.
Hume-Rothery rules
The Hume-Rothery rules, named after William Hume-Rothery, are a set of basic rules
describing the conditions under which an element could dissolve in a metal, forming a
solid solution.There are two sets of rules, one which refers to substitutional solid
solutions, and another which refers to interstitial solid solutions.

For substitutional solid solutions, the Hume-Rothery rules are:

1. The atomic radii of the solute and solvent atoms must differ by no
more than 15%:

2. The crystal structures of solute and solvent must match.

3. Complete solubility occurs when the solvent and solute have the
same valency.[1] A metal will dissolve a metal of higher valency to a
greater extent than one of lower valency.

4. The solute and solvent should have similar electronegativity. If the

electronegativity difference is too great, the metals will tend to form
intermetallic compounds instead of solid solutions.
For interstitial solid solutions, the Hume-Rothery rules are:

1. Solute atoms must be smaller than the interstitial sites in the solvent lattice.

2. The solute and solvent should have similar electronegativity.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
ASTM GRAIN SIZE NUMBER

n = 2 G-1

where:

n = the number of grains per square inch at 100X

magnification, and

G = the ASTM grain size number.

Crystalline Materials
•A crystalline structure is any structure of ions,
molecules, or atoms that are held together in an ordered,
three-dimensional arrangement.

Noncrystalline Materials or Amorphous materials

• An amorphous structure is irregular and lacks the

repeating pattern of a crystal lattice.
• Single crystal materials
• A crystalline material in which there is long-range order.
Such a material has no grain boundaries, so it is
completely uniform throughout the entire crystal,
regardless of its size. Single crystal – only one grain or
crystal and hence, no grain boundaries.

• Polycrystalline materials

• Polycrystalline Polycrystalline material – Aggregate of

several crystals or grains The boundary between the
grain is the grain boundary across which the orientation
of the crystal changes.
Isotropic and Anisotropy materials
• Isotropic materials are something with identical properties in all
directions.

• “Anisotropic” refers to the properties of a material that is

dependent on the direction. Another condition that can fit the
anisotropic definition is the presence of different properties in
different directions. A different chemical bonding in all directions
is also a condition for anisotropy.
Allotropy

• The possibility of existence of two or more different

crystal structures for a substance
 PHASE DIAGRAM

• A phase diagram in physical chemistry, engineering,

and materials science is a type of chart used to show
conditions at which thermodynamically distinct phases
can occur at equilibrium.
(OR)
• Phase diagram is graphical representation of existence
of different phases of substances with respect to different
factors.

• Factors affecting phases:

i) Temperature, ii) Composition and iii) Pressure.
PHASE DIAGRAM OF PURE WATER
 GIBBS PHASE RULE
The rule is:
F = C - P + 2.
The number of degrees of freedom (F) is the number of
independent intensive variables, i.e. the thermodynamic
parameters such as temperature or pressure that can be
varied simultaneously and arbitrarily without affecting one
another. Typical such variables might be temperature,
pressure, or concentration.

A Phase: The number of phases is represented in the

relation by P.

The Chemical Constituents are simply the distinct

compounds (or elements) involved in the equations of the
system. The number of these are represented as C.
COOLING CURVES

B C Melting temperature

D
Cooling Curve for Binary (two elements) System-Completely Soluble
Phase Diagram for Completely Soluble (Isomorphous) system

Common examples of isomorphous system

• Cooper-Nickel (Cu-Ni)
• Bismuth-Antimony (Bi-Sb)
• Gold-Silver (Au-Ag)
• Cromium-Molybdenum (Cr-Mo)
 20% Cu
80% Cu 50% Cu 100%

100%
Phase Diagram for Completely Soluble Metals
 C&D

A&B

Cooling curve Phase Diagram

 C&D

A&B
Phase Diagram for Bismuth-Antimony (Bi-Sb) system
 LEVER RULE

• The lever rule is a tool used to determine

weight percentages of each phase of a
binary equilibrium phase diagram.

• It is used to determine the percent weight

of liquid and solid phases for a given binary
composition and temperature that is
between the liquidus and solidus
• Before any calculations can be made a tie line is drawn on the phase
diagram to determine the percent weight of each element; on the phase
diagram to the right it is line segment LS.
• This tie line is drawn horizontally at the composition's temperature from
one phase to another (here the liquid to the solids).
• The percent weight of element B at the liquidus is given by wl and the
percent weight of element B at the solidus is given by ws.
• The percent weight of solid and liquid can then be
calculated using the following lever rule equations

• where wo is the percent weight of element B for the given

composition.
Example:

Problem

For a 35 wt% Ni - 65 wt% Cu alloy at 1250°C, what

phases(s) is (are) present? What is (are) the composition(s)
of the phase(s)? Calculate the relative amount of each
phase present in terms of mass fraction.

Solution
(a.) Locate this temperature-composition point on the phase
diagram (point c in figure 3). It is located within the alpha
plus liquid region; therefore, both the alpha and the liquid
phases will coexist.
(b) Since two phases are present, it becomes necessary to
construct a tie line across the alpha plus liquid region at
twelve hundred fifty degrees Centigrade, as indicated in
figure.

The composition of the alpha phase corresponds to the tie

line intersection with the alpha per alpha plus liquidus
boundary about 43 wt% Ni - 57 wt% Cu. Similarly for the
liquid phase, which will have a composition of
approximately 3 wt% Ni - 70 wt% Cu.

(c) Since the alloy consists of two phases, it is necessary to

employ the lever rule.
Cooling Curve for Binary Eutectic System-Partially Soluble
Phase Diagram of Binary Eutectic System-Partially Soluble

• Lead-Tin (Pb-Sn)
• Copper-Silver (Cu-Ag)
• Aluminium-Copper (Al-Cu)
Phase Diagram of Binary Eutectic System-Partially Soluble

Phase Diagram of Lead-Tin (Pb-Sn) Binary system

Phase Diagram of Binary Eutectic System-Partially Soluble

Phase Diagram of Copper-Silver (Cu-Ag) Binary system

Invariant Reaction during Phase Transformation of Solids
 IRON-IRON CARBIDE EQUILIBRIUM DIAGRAM
• Iron-Iron carbide equilibrium diagram is useful in understanding
the micro-constituents, microstructures and properties of steels
and cast iron.
• The equilibrium diagram is constructed by plotting the carbon
% along the X-axis and temperature along the Y-axis.

IMPORTANT TEMPERATURES AND PERCENTAGES OF CARBON

% of Carbon Temperatures °C
0.025 723
0.83 912
2.14 1147
0.09 1394
0.18 1493
4.3 1538
0.09%0.18%
 0.025

0.09% 0.18%
 CLASSIFICATION OF STEEL
1. PLAIN CARBON STEELS:
i) Low carbon steels
ii) Medium carbon steels
iii) High carbon steels

2. ALLOY STEELS
i) Low alloy steels
ii) High alloy steels

PLAIN CARBON STEELS

• Carbon is the alloying element.
• They are sufficiently ductile to readily formed.

Low carbon steels:

• Contains less than 0.25% of carbon.
• It is also called as mild steel.
Properties of low carbon steels:
• Relatively soft and weak
• They cannot heat treated particularly cannot be hardened
• Having excellent formability and weldability.
• Strengthening can be done by cold working
Applications:
• Automobile bodies
• Structural components
• Pipe lines etc.

MEDIUM CARBON STEELS

• Carbon % is from 0.25 to 0.6
• Can be heat treated.
• Posses low hardenability

Applications
Railway wheels, Railway tracks, crankshafts, machine parts.
High Carbon Steels
• Carbon % is from 0.6 to 1.2%
• Hardest and strongest steels among carbon steels
• They are least ductile
• Posses good wear resistance

Applications:
• Cutting tools
• Dies
• Knives
• Razors
• Hacksaw blades
• Springs
• Wires
Cast Irons
• Classification
 White cast iron
 Gray cast iron
 Malleable cast iron
 Ductile or Nodular iron
 White Cast Iron
• White cast iron is named after its white surface when fractured ,
 Due to its carbide impurities that allow cracks to pass straight
through; the crystalline fractures are shiny compared to the dull
gray fractures of graphite irons.
 < 1 wt% Si, rapid cooling rates , pearlite + most of the carbon
forms cementite, not graphite.
 Very hard and brittle;
 White iron develops from faster cooling;
 Microstructure pearlite in a white interdendritic network of
cementite.
• Shows a “white” crystalline fractured surface.
 Excellent wear resistance
• High compressive stress

Chemical composition:
– Carbon 1.8-3.6 %, Silicon 0.5-1.9 %, Manganese 0.25-
0.80 %,
Sulfur 0.06-0.20 %, Phosphorus 0.06-0.18 %

Applications:

 Wear surfaces (impeller and volute) of slurry pumps, shell liners

and lifter bars in ball mills and autogenous grinding mills, balls and
rings in coal pulverisers.
White Cast Iron Microstructure
 Gray Cast Iron
• Grey cast iron is named after its grey fractured surface that occurs when
the graphitic flakes deflect a passing crack and initiate many new cracks
as the material breaks.
• Slower cooling rate yields gray iron.
• Graphite flakes surrounded by a-ferrite or pearlite matrix
• Weak & brittle in tension (the graphite flake tips are sharp; act as stress raisers)
• Stronger in compression
• Excellent vibrational dampening & wear resistant
• Carbon (C) and silicon (Si) are the main alloying elements,
• Carbon content: 3.0 – 4.0 wt%, Silicon content: 1.0 – 3.0 wt %
• Modifying silicon content and cooling rate affects microstructure.
• Casting shrinkage is low.
Applications;
• It is used for housings where tensile strength is non-critical, such as
• I.C engine cylinder blocks,Pump housings, Valve bodies,
• Electrical boxes, and decorative castings.
• Grey cast iron's high thermal conductivity and specific heat capacity are
often exploited to make cast iron cookware and disc brake rotors.
Gray Cast Iron Microstructure
 Malleable Cast Iron
• Malleable cast iron formed by heat treating white iron at
800-900ºC for a prolonged period causes decomposition of
cementite into graphite.
• Graphite forms clusters or rosettes that are surrounded by a
ferrite or pearlite matrix.
• Reasonably strong and ductile (malleable)
• Carbon content: 2.3 – 2.7 wt%
• Silicon content: 1.0 – 1.75 wt %
Applications
• It is often used for small castings requiring good tensile strength
and the ability to flex without breaking (ductility). Electrical
fittings, hand tools, pipe fittings, washers, brackets, fence fittings,
power line hardware, farm equipment, mining hardware, and
machine parts.
Malleable Cast Iron
 S.G.IRON
•Ductile iron, also known as ductile cast iron, nodular cast iron,
spheroidal graphite iron (S.G).

•In ductile irons, the graphite is in the form of spherical nodules rather than flakes
(as in grey iron), thus inhibiting the creation of cracks and providing the enhanced
ductility that gives the alloy its name.
•Gray C.I is converted into S.G. iron by adding nodulizing elements, most commonly
Magnesium (note Magnesium boils at 1100C and Iron melts at 1500C) and, less
often now, Cerium & Tellurium have also been used.
•Composition
Iron, Carbon 3.3 to 3.4%, Silicon 2.2 to 2.8%, Manganese 0.1 to 0.5%,
Magnesium 0.03 to 0.05%, Phosphorus 0.005 to 0.04%, Sulfur 0.005 to 0.02%

• Applications
• Valves, pump parts, crank shafts, gears, pinions, rollers, flanges, pipe fittings,
components of earth moving machines.
S.G.IRON