PRODUCTION

TECHNOLOGIES
WORK 1
METALLIC MATERIALS CASTING AND SINTERING PROCESSES

Gaye Gülüm Şimşek

20210386
 WHAT IS METAL CASTING?
Metal casting is a modern process with ancient roots. In the metal casting process,
metal shapes are formed by pouring molten metal into a mold cavity, where it is
cooled and later extracted from the mold. Metal casting is arguably the earliest and
most influential industrial process in history. It’s used to make many of the metal
objects used in our daily lives: automotive parts, train wheels, lamp posts, school bus
pedals, and much more. Plus, metal casting foundries rely on metal recycling as a
cost-efficient source of raw material, significantly reducing wasted scrap metal that
might end up in landfills.

THE HISTORY OF METAL CASTING

The oldest known metal casting is that of a copper frog, believed to have
been produced in 3200 BCE in Mesopotamia when copper was a popularly used
material. Later, around 2000 BCE, iron was discovered. But it was not until around
700 BCE that the first production of cast iron was developed in China. Interestingly
enough, the sand molding process of casting metals was also invented in China in 645
BCE.
The crucible process, a technique used for producing fine or tool steel, appeared and
disappeared in various locations around the globe since the early 1st millennium CE.
The technique popped up in India and central Asia first, until it appeared in northern
Europe around 800 CE, where it was used to make Viking swords. The technique
didn’t resurface until 1750 when Benjamin Huntsman reinvented it in England.
Huntsman heated small pieces of carbon steel in a closed crucible, which is a ceramic
pot with refractory properties that can withstand a high degree of heat. Huntsman
achieved a temperature high enough to melt steel for the first time.
Over the past thousands of years, the casting of metals into usable objects has
evolved to become more exact and automated, but the process at its core has
essentially remained the same. Innovations in automation of foundry processes like
the General Kinematics’ VIBRA-DRUM® Sand Casting Conditioner have made
processing large quantities of castings easier as well as improved the quality of the
castings. The machine is revolutionary in its high volume mold and sand handling for
foundry applications.
 TYPES OF METAL CASTING
Metal casting can be divided into two groups by the basic nature of the mould design.
i.e. expendable mould and non-expendable mould castings. It can be further
subdivided into groups depending on their pattern material.
• Non-expendable molds:
1. Permanent molds
2. Semi-permanent molds
3. Slush casting
4. Centrifugal casting
5. Pressure casting
6. Die casting
• Expendable molds:
1. Sand casting
2. Shell molding
3. Investment casting (lost-wax)
4. Full mold or foam
The following factors need to be considered before choosing a suitable metal casting
for a given engineering product design.
• Part shape and size
• Required quantity
• Required tolerance
• Material

Centrifugal Casting/Sand Casting/Investment Casting

 EXPENDABLE MOULD CASTING

Expendable mould casting, as the name suggests uses a temporary non-reusable

mould to produce the final casting as the mould will be broken to get the casting out.
These moulds are typically made of materials such as sand, ceramics & plaster.
These are generally bonded using binders called bonding agent to improve its
properties. Complex intricate geometries can be cast using expendable mould
casting.

N O N - E X P E N D A B L E M O U L D C A S T IN G

Sometimes called permanent mould casting, non-expendable mould casting uses

permanent moulds that are reused after each production cycle. Although permanent
mould casting produces repeatable parts due to re-use of the same mould, it can only
produce simple castings as the mould needs to be opened to remove the castings.

TYPES OF METAL CASTING PROCESS

Following are the four different types of metal casting processes used for
large-scale production:
1. Sand casting
2. Investment casting
3. Permanent mould casting
4. Pressure die casting
 1. SAND CASTING

It is the most extensively and widely used types of metal casting process. This is an
expendable mould-permanent pattern casting process. The sand casting process
involves the use of a furnace, metal, pattern, and sand mould.

Hand ramming of sand around the pattern is used for simple casting. For complicated
castings, the sand mixture is compacted by moulding machines. Moulding machines
not only increase the production cost but also improve the quality of casting by
improving the application and distribution of forces for ramming.

It can be used for all types of metals but the surface finish and dimensional accuracy
are not good compared with other casting processes. It is the most economical
production process.
 ADVANTAGES OF SAND CASTING

• Almost any metal can cast.

• It has no limit on size and shape.
• Low equipment cost.
• Less expensive for low volume production.

DISADVANTAGES OR LIMITATIONS OF SAND CASTING

• Coarse finish.
• Dimensional accuracy is not good.
• Still finishing is required for casting.
• It has a low production rate.

2. INVESTMENT CASTING

The sequence of operations in a shell investment casting is given below:

• Fabrication of a master pattern: The master pattern is made using a
material like wood or plastic.
• Fabrication of master dies: A die can be cast out of low melting point
metal using the master pattern. steel or wooden dies are used.

• Preparation of wax patterns: Wax patterns are made by pouring

molten wax into die. After the wax has solidified, it is taken out of the die.
• Assembly of wax patterns: Depending upon the size of casting several
wax patterns are assembled together in the form of a tree or a cluster with
central spruce and runners.
• Coating of a cluster: The cluster is now coated with a thin layer of
refractory material. This step is performed by dipping the whole cluster into a
thin slurry of very fine refractory material mixed with hydrolyzed ethyl silicate,
alcohol and a gelling agent.
• Producing a final layer of refractory material: Here the coated
cluster is dipped repeatedly in the relatively coarsely ground refractory
material to achieve the desired thickness of the coating.
• Hardening of coating: The coated cluster is left out for drying up and
hardening for some time (few hours).
• Melting of wax patterns: The mould is placed in the oven upside down
and the wax is allowed to flow out of the mould which is collected for reuse.
• Preheating the mould: The is fired at 700-1000°c to impart strength to
the mould and ensure the flow of molten metal to all the intricate and thin
sections.
• Filling the hot mould: Molten metal is filled in the mould by gravity,
vacuum pressure or force.
• Cleaning of casting: spruce and runners are now removed and the casting
is cleaned and finished.

ADVANTAGES OF INVESTMENT CASTING

• Almost any metal can be cast,

• Good surface finish.
• Good dimensional accuracy.
• Fairly high production rate.
• Complex shapes can be cast.
• Low finishing cost.

DISADVANTAGES OR LIMITATIONS OF INVESTMENT CASTING

• High labour cost.

• Expensive mould and pattern.
• Limitation on part size.
 3. PERMANENT MOULD CASTING

There are so many permanent mould casting processes, a few of them are listed
below:
• Gravity-feed permanent mould casting
• Low-pressure permanent mould casting
• Die casting
• Centrifugal casting
• Continuous casting
In these processes, a mould is used repeatedly. The mould is generally on two halves
and is designed for easy opening and closing. Ejector pins are provided for the
removal of the solidified casting. Metallic mould is not permeable’ therefore’
clearance along the parting planes and the ejector pine serve as vents for the escape
of gases.
The refractory coating on the thinner walls of the mould not only increases the mould
life but also prevents the sticking of casting on the mould walls.
Preheating of the mould and controlled cooling of the mould through water
circulation maintain a uniform mould temperature. Permanent with other processes
are used for casting low melting point, non-ferrous materials using alloy steel
moulds.
In comparison with other processes’ better surface finish and dimensional accuracy
are obtained in this process. The initial cost is high, so these processes are
economical only when higher production volumes are required.

ADVANTAGES OF PERMANENT MOULD CASTING

• Good surface finish.

• Good dimensional accuracy.
• High production rate.

DISADVANTAGES OR LIMITATIONS OF PERMANENT MOULD

CASTING

• High mould cost.

• It is suitable for high volume production.
• Suitable for casting of simple shapes.
• Suitable for low-melting-point metals.

4. DIE CASTING

Die casting is a very commonly used type of permanent mould casting process. It is
used for the production of many components of home appliances like stoves, fans,
motors, and toys, etc.
The surface finish and tolerance of die-cast parts are so good that there is almost no
post-processing required. Die casting mould are expensive and require a significant
lead time to fabricate; they are commonly called dies.
There are two common types of die casting:
1. Hot chamber die-casting
2. Cold-chamber die casting.

4.1 HOT CHAMBER DIE CASTING PROCESS

In a hot chamber process (used for zinc alloys magnesium) the pressure chamber
connected to the die cavity is filled permanently with the molten metal.
The basic cycle of operation is as follows:
• Die is closed and gooseneck cylinder is filled with molten metal.
• The plunger pushes molten metal through gooseneck passage and nozzle and into
the die cavity: metal is held under pressure until it solidifies.
• Die opens and cores, if any, are retracted; casting stays in ejector die; plunger
returns, pulling molten metal back through nozzle and gooseneck.
• Ejector pins push casting out of ejector die. As plunger uncovers the inlet hole,
molten metal refills gooseneck cylinder.
The hot chamber process is used for metal that (a) have low melting points and (b) do
not alloy with die material, steel; common examples are tin, zinc, and lead.
 4.2 COLD CHAMBER DIE CASTING PROCESS

In a cold chamber process, the molten metal is poured into the cold chamber in each
cycle. The operating cycle is
• Die is closed and molten metal is ladled into the cold chamber cylinder.
• The plunger pushes molten metal into die cavity; the metal is held under high
pressure until it solidifies.
• Die opens and plunger follows to push the solidified slug from the cylinder if there
are core, they are retracted away.
• Ejector pins push casting off ejector die and plunger returns to the original
position.
This process is particularly useful for high melting point metals such as Aluminum,
and Copper (and their alloys).
 ADVANTAGES OF DIE CASTING

• Excellent surface finish.

• Excellent dimensional accuracy.
• High production rate.
• Complex shapes can be cast.
• Little or no finishing cost.

DİSADVANTAGES OR LİMİTATİONS OF DİE CASTİNG

• The high cost of the die.

• Limited to the casting of non-ferrous metals.
• Limitation on part size.

STAGES OF METAL CASTING PROCESS

1. PATTERN MAKING

In pattern making, patterns are designed and prepared as per the drawing of the
casting received from the planning section and according to the moulding process.
The materials of the pattern are selected based on the factors such as a number of
castings requires and surface finish desired in casting.
It is a skilled trade that is related to the trades of the tool and die making and mould
making but also often incorporates elements of fine woodworking.
The materials used for pattern making are wood, metal or plastics.
 2. MOULDING AND CORE MAKING

The patterns are sent to the moulding stage, in which moulds are prepared either in
sand or a material with the help of pattern so that a cavity of the desired shape is
produced.
To get a hollow portion, cores are prepared in core boxes. The moulds and cores are
then baked to impart strength and finally assembled for pouring.
The moulding can be done either by hand or with the help of machines.
Proper mould design and arrangement for a flow of molten metal is very important
for the production of sound castings.

3. MELTING AND CASTING

The metal of correct composition is melted in a suitable furnace.

Molten metal is now taken in ladles and poured into the moulds.
The moulds are then allowed to cool so that the molten metal in the mould solidifies.
Casting is then taken out by breaking the moulds and they are sent to the cleaning
section.

4. FETTLING

The casting is sent to fettling section where the unnecessary projections, the
adhering sand removed, and the entire surface made clean and uniform.
Some castings required heat treatment also, which is done during this state only

5. TESTING AND INSPECTION

The inspector test and inspect the casting before dispatching from the foundry to
ensure that it is flawless and conforms to the desired specifications.
If any defects are found in casting, then they have been completely rejected.
 MATERIAL SUITABILITY
Although almost all the metals can be used, the most common ones are iron, steel,
aluminium, magnesium and copper-based alloys such as bronze.
Zinc, aluminium, magnesium and brass are widely used in die casting whereas
aluminium alloy, brass alloy, cast iron and cast steel are very popular sand-casting
materials.

TYPICAL APPLICATION
Nearly every engineering product we use from washing machines to pillar drills, cars
to bicycles is manufactured using metal parts which are most likely to be made using
one of the metal casting processes. This age-old manufacturing process has improved
its precision and tolerances over time.
Typically, castings are used to make car engine blocks, crankshafts, power tool
housings such as pillar drills, plumbing parts, turbine blades, metal statues, some
gears and gearbox housings.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

OF METAL CASTING
As with any other manufacturing process, a basic understanding of the process, its
underlying science, its pros and cons are essential for manufacturing low-cost quality
engineer products.

ADVANTAGES OF METAL CASTING

• Metal casting can produce complex shapes

• Features like internal cavities or hollow sections can be easily achieved
• Large components can be produced in one-piece cast
• Materials that are difficult or expensive to manufacture using other
manufacturing processes can be cast
• Compared to other manufacturing processes, casting is cheaper for medium to
large quantities
• Almost all the metals can be cast
• Near net shape often without or very minor post-processing
Because of the above reasons metal casting is one of the important net shape
manufacturing technologies. Others include net shape forging, stamping of sheet
metal, additive manufacturing and metal injection moulding.

DISADVANTAGES OF METAL CASTING

• Relatively coarse surface finish and hence wider tolerance has to be allowed and
not suitable for mating interfaces
• Metal casting such as shell moulding has a limit in terms of size and the pattern
• Patterns are time-consuming and expensive to make although additive
manufacturing processes such as binder jetting are being used lately to make a
mould
• Die casting can be very expensive for smaller to medium quantities due to the
high die cost
• Part size and material choices depend on the casting process chosen. For instance,
only non-ferrous metal can be used for permanent mould castings

MODERN DAY CASTINGS

Today, nearly every mechanical device we use, from automobiles to washing
machines are manufactured using metal parts that were created using the casting
process. The difference between today’s cast metal products and those that were
manufactured even 100 years ago is the precision and tolerances that can be
achieved through the computerized automated design process, and modern methods
for producing the detailed cores and molds. Modern-day metal casting represents
innovation at work.
Throughout the centuries, various combinations of raw materials have been
developed to produce various metal types. Some cast products are used in engines
that require a high tolerance for heat and cold. Cast iron pipes must resist corrosion
and high pressures. Other cast parts must be lightweight but durable. In many
applications, parts are designed to allow for precise tolerance between expansion
and contraction.
Other casting processes include plaster casting, die casting, and investment casting.
Plaster casting simply replaces the sand with a plaster mold.
Die casting requires two large, moving non-ferrous metal parts that clamp together
under high-pressure. Molten metal is injected into the die and the metal parts are
separated once hardened.
The process of investment casting begins with filling a mold with wax. Once the wax
hardens, it is coated multiple times in a ceramic material. This is heated until the wax
melts and the ceramic mold remains. The mold is filled with molten metal, cooled,
and then the ceramic material is broken off.
 SINTERING
Sintering, which is also called ‘frittage,’ is the process of forming a solid mass of
material through heat and pressure without melting to the point of liquefaction. This
process involves the atoms in materials diffusing across the particle boundaries and
fusing together into one piece. Sintering occurs naturally in mineral deposits, and is
used as a manufacturing process for materials including ceramics, metals and plastics.
Because the sintering temperature doesn’t reach the materials’ melting point, it is
often used for materials with high melting points, such as molybdenum and tungsten.
Powder metallurgy is the study of sintering using powder-related processes.

WHAT IS THE SINTERING PROCESS?

Sintering is a heat treatment process where loose material is subjected to high
temperature and pressure in order to compact it into a solid piece. This is similar to
when ice cubes adhere together in a glass of water due to the temperature difference
between the ice and the water, or when you push snow together to form a compact
snowball.
The heat and pressure required for the sintering process is less than the material’s
melting point.
 HOW DOES IT WORK?
Just as a material has a melting point, it will also have a desirable sintering point, at
which the heat and pressure are enough to reduce the porous spaces between the
material’s particles and squeeze loose material together into a solid lump.
This use of pressure and heat takes place naturally in mineral deposits within the
Earth as well as in glacial formations.
Sintering is used to increase material properties, including thermal and electrical
conductivity, material strength and integrity, and translucency.

METALLIC POWDER SINTERING

Most metals can be sintered, particularly pure metals in a vacuum where surface
contamination cannot occur. When sintering a metal powder, such as iron powder,
under atmospheric pressure a protective gas should be used. Sintering can cause a
reduction in the overall volume of material as the density increases and material fills
voids before the final stages see metal atoms travel along crystal boundaries and
smooth out the pore walls due to surface tension. Liquid state sintering is when at
least one (but not all) of the materials are in a liquid state. Still considered powder
metallurgy, this technique is used to make tungsten carbide and cemented carbide.
Sintered metal powder is used for a range of applications from making bearings and
jewellery to heat pipes and even shotgun shells. Sintering is also one of the few viable
options for manufacturing with materials that have high melting points, such as
carbon, tanatalum and tungsten.
 SINTERING PROCESS IN METALLURGY
The majority of metals can be sintered. Powder sintering is used to increase the
strength and structural integrity of metal powders.The sintering process in metallurgy
follows the fusing of metal powders, along with other materials such as alloying
elements, using heat treatment in a (typically) single, elongated furnace with
different temperature zones. The sintering temperature is always below the melting
point of the materials to avoid melting.
The sintering process in metallurgy has three stages.

INITIAL STAGE:

The first stage of metal powder sintering involves the materials being heated in the
furnace at a temperature rate that induces the creation of martensitic, crystalline
structures. Complete compaction does not occur because the sintering temperature
is not high enough to melt the particles. Consolidating the materials can be
accomplished through various means, including using tools to press the materials
together or 3D printing lasers which can partially melt powders.
The particles can also be joined by cold welds to give the powder compact enough
strength for the rest of the sintering process.

INTERMEDIATE PROCESS:

The particle’s density increases and they eventually merge. Two common ways to
achieve this are transient liquid phase sintering and permanent liquid phase
sintering.
If the sintering powder compact involves iron, then the transient liquid phase
sintering is used. In this process, copper powder is added to the iron powder. At the
regular sintering temperature, copper melts and infuses with the iron, hardening the
materials together.
In the permanent liquid phase method, liquid materials such as cemented carbides
are added and flow into the open pores and cracks, further binding the materials
together.
 FINAL STAGE:

By this powder sintering stage, the original sintering powder materials have now
become a mostly solid form. In the final stage of permanent liquid phase sintering,
more liquid and binder additive flows into any open cracks or pores, successfully
binding together the packed mass.

SINTERING VS. MELTING

There are distinct differences between sintering and melting.
Melting actually gets the metal hot enough that it changes from solid to liquid.
Sintering is different because the heating process is highly controlled. You get the
enhanced properties you need without having to melt the metal. One of the great
things about sintering is that you can easily make parts out of metals with high
melting points.
• Sintering can accomplish a lot when done right, including:
• Eliminating the lubricants in the compacted powder
• Reducing the amount of oxygen on the powder’s surface
• Developing sintered necks between the particles, reducing pores and increasing
strength
• Partially or fully diffusing other elements in the mix, such as nickel, copper, and
graphite
 HIGH-TEMPERATURE SINTERING
For sintering to be considered high-temperature, it needs to happen at around 100-
250 °F hotter (in the case of iron-heavy materials) than the standard sintering temp
for a particular metal. For iron-heavy metals, the typical temperature is 2050 °F. High-
temp sintering is more expensive than conventional sintering because you’re paying
for extra “oomph” from the manufacturer’s equipment.
However, the extra cost can produce powdered metal material properties not
available in any other way. One study showed that high-temp sintered parts
improved in the following ways:
• Increases in tensile strength of 30%
• Bending fatigue strength increases of 15%
• Increases in impact energy of 50%

ADVANTAGES
Particular advantages of the powder technology include:
• Very high levels of purity and uniformity in starting materials
• Preservation of purity, due to the simpler subsequent fabrication process (fewer
steps) that it makes possible
• Stabilization of the details of repetitive operations, by control of grain size during
the input stages
• Absence of binding contact between segregated powder particles – or "inclusions"
(called stringering) – as often occurs in melting processes
• No deformation needed to produce directional elongation of grains
• Capability to produce materials of controlled, uniform porosity.
• Capability to produce nearly net-shaped objects.
• Capability to produce materials which cannot be produced by any other
technology.
• Capability to fabricate high-strength material like turbine blades.
• After sintering the mechanical strength to handling becomes higher.
• The literature contains many references on sintering dissimilar materials to
produce solid/solid-phase compounds or solid/melt mixtures at the processing
stage.
Almost any substance can be obtained in powder form, through either chemical,
mechanical or physical processes, so basically any material can be obtained through
sintering. When pure elements are sintered, the leftover powder is still pure, so it can
be recycled.

DISADVANTAGES
Particular disadvantages of the powder technology include:
• 100% sintered (iron ore) cannot be charged in the blast furnace
• Sintering cannot create uniform sizes
• Micro- and nanostructures produced before sintering are often destroyed.
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