20230116-MT-205-PD-BNS-L-4 To L-6 (2022-2023) Notes - 2

MT-205 Phase Diagrams
2022-2023
1. Thermodynamic Fundamentals
Professor B.N. Sarma
Department of Metallurgical Engg.

Indian Institute of Technology (Banaras Hindu University)
IIT (BHU) MT 205 PD BNS L-6 Jan 16, 2023

1.1 State Quantities
• Potentials that can be manipulated, in a reasonably direct
fashion to fix or alter the state of a system (e.g. : T, P, X).
– Gases and liquids : Properties are single valued functions of the
state variables temperature, pressure and composition.
– Solids : (i) resist shear stresses ; (ii) sluggish reactions
• structure sensitive properties (particularly mechanical properties)
of a steel bar are completely unspecified if only its temperature,
pressure and composition are given, as they depend on the past
history.
• structure insensitive properties including thermodynamic properties
can be specified in terms of T, P, X.
• Limitations on application of thermodynamic equations for solids.

1.2. Criterion for Equilibrium
• The first law of thermodynamics states that the change in
internal energy (a state property) of a closed system is
given by
dE = δQ – δW (1.1)
δQ is the heat absorbed by the system and
δW is the work done by the system (both being path functions)
• If the system is of fixed composition and mass for which
the only work done is against pressure,
δW = Psurr dV.
At equilibrium, Psurr = Psystem = P.
dE = δQ – P dV (1.2)
• At constant volume, we have
dE = δQ (1.3)

1.2. Criterion for Equilibrium (contd)
• Further, the change in the enthalpy
H ≡ E + PV (1.4)
is given by
dH = d(E + PV) = dE + P dV + V dP
• Substituting from equation (1.2), we get
dH = δQ + V dP (1.5)
• Thus, at constant pressure
dH = δQ (1.6)
• Experimentally, specific heats are found by measuring δQ
at constant volume or pressure.
• Eq. (1.3) & (1.6) relate δQ to state properties for this
purpose.

• The second law introduces another state property, called
entropy, which has the following important characteristics:
• For an equilibrium (or a reversible) process, the entropy of
the system plus that of the surroundings is a constant, i.e.,
dStotal = dS + dSsurr = 0 (1.7)
• For a spontaneous (or irreversible) process
dStotal = dS + dSsurr > 0 (1.8)
• The change in entropy is defined by
dS = δQrev / T (1.9)
• From Eq. (1.7) and (1.8),
For a system and its surroundings (an isolated system)
dStotal ≥ 0 (1.10)
• Combining equations (1.2) and (1.9), we have for a
reversible process that is for a system at equilibrium
dE = T dS – P dV (1.11)
This is a combined statement of first and second laws.
• This can be rewritten as
dS = (1 / T) dE + (P / T) dV (1.12)
• Thus
(dS)E,V = 0 (1.13)
• Comparing Eq. (1.7) and (1.13), we conclude that E and V
are constant for an isolated system.

• In eq (1.11), the independent variables are S and V, both
of which are difficult to manipulate experimentally.
• These independent variables can be changed to P and T
by introducing the Gibbs function (free energy) through
G ≡ H – TS = E + PV – TS (1.14)
• (a Legendre Transformation). Differentiation yields
dG = dE + P dV + V dP – T dS – S dT (1.15)
• Substitution from eq (1.11) gives
dG = V dP – S dT (1.16)
• For a process carried out at constant T and P under
equilibrium conditions, eq. (1.16) becomes
(dG)T,P = 0 for a reversible process (1.17)

• Next, consider a spontaneous (or irreversible) process at
constant T and P in which heat δQ is supplied to the
system from its surroundings. The removal of heat from
the surroundings occurs in a reversible manner. Thus, the
change in entropy of the surroundings is given by
dSsurr = - δQ / T = - dH / T (1.18)
where we have used eq (1.6).
• Substituting in eq (1.8), we have
dS – dH / T > 0
or dH – T dS < 0 (1.19)
• From equation (1.14), we obtain for constant T
dG = dH – T dS – S dT = dH – T dS (1.20)

• From equations (1.19) and (1.20), it follows that for an
irreversible process
(dG)T,P < 0 (1.21)
• Thus, the first two laws of thermodynamics reveal that in a

spontaneous process at constant temperature and
pressure, the Gibbs function decreases and reaches a
minimum at equilibrium.
• Hence, G for a given phase must be minimized to ensure
equlm of that phase.

1.3. Phases and Components
• The criterion for equilibrium expressed in the equation
is applicable for a closed system, that is, the composition
of the system is fixed and for which the only energy
exchanges with the surroundings are due to heat transfer
and work done against pressure.
• In the study of materials, we are frequently interested in
systems that may also undergo compositional changes by
mass transfer.
• To facilitate the treatment of such systems, a discussion of
the terms phase and component is necessary.

1.3. Phases and Components (contd)
• Any system under equilibrium may be either
homogeneous or heterogeneous.
• A homogeneous system exhibits uniform properties (on a
microscopic and macroscopic scales, but not on atomic
scale) throughout the system and contains only one
physical boundary, that between the system and its
surroundings. Such a system is called a single-phase
system.
• Practically, in systems made up of metals and alloys in the
solid state, internal boundaries called grain (or more
precisely homophase) boundaries are present.
• If the grain size is not too small (> 1μm), the effects of
these boundaries on structure insensitive properties are
negligible.

• Phase is all those portions of a system, each of
which is separated from its surroundings by a
definite interface, possessing the same intensive
and molar properties when the system is in
thermodynamic equlm, or exhibiting a continuous
variation in intensive and molar properties when
the system is in a non-equilibrium condition.
• A heterogeneous system contains two or more
homogeneous systems, or phases, each
separated from the others by distinct physical
boundaries called heterophase boundaries.

• Components are defined as the minimum number of
chemical species that may be independently varied in
amount and by means of which the compositions of every
phase in the system may be completely specified under
given experimental conditions.
• In general, the number of components is simply equal to
the number of elements in the system.
• In complex systems, however, the number of components
may not be immediately apparent and in practice will
depend on experimental conditions as well as the
definition of equilibrium.
• Two illustrative examples :

• Consider a system composed of H2, O2, and H2O.
• At standard T and P, there are two phases,
one a liquid consisting of an aqueous solution of H2 and O2,
the other a vapour containing the two gases and water vapour.
Any chemical reaction between H2, O2, and H2O is extremely
slow and can be neglected. However, the following equilibria do
occur H2 (liquid) = H2 (vapour) ;
O2 (liquid) = O2 (vapour) ;
H2O (liquid) = H2O (vapour).
All three species, H2, O2, and H2O are independently variable
and all must be specified. The number of components is three.
• At high temperatures, the reaction 2 H2 + O2 = 2 H2O proceeds
to equilibrium rapidly. Only two of the three species need to be
specified. The number of components is two.
• Consider : Cementite (Fe3C), in equilibrium with a solid
solution of C in solid iron (ferrite), in steel.
• Fe3C is not strictly a stable phase. At RT, Fe3C
decomposes to ferrite and graphite very slowly, so that
Fe3C may be considered to be a stable species. Thus, the
number of components is three.
• The decomposition of Fe3C does proceed essentially to
equilibrium at heat treatment temperatures.
Thus, the amounts of only two of the three species may be
independently varied, and the number of components
becomes two.
• The choice of species as components is arbitrary, but for
convenience the elemental species Fe and C are chosen.
1.4. Equilibrium in Systems of Variable
Compositions
• Multicomponent, multiphase (heterogeneous) systems, of
overall fixed composition and mass, with possible transfer
of matter from phase to phase are of prime concern for us.
• Focus attention on any single phase within the system.
This is an open system, i.e., one which can exchange
matter with its surroundings.
• The infinitesimal internal energy change is given by
 E  

(dE ) S ,V =     dni =  i dni (1.22)
i  ni  S ,V ,nj i
• Adding the heat and work terms, the combined eq. is
dE  = TdS  − PdV  +   i dni (1.23)

i

Conditions for multiphase equilibria in
multicomponent systems
• A general derivation
• Consider an isolated multi-component multiphase
system comprising M phases (, , , …)
• Let each of the phases be
made up of K components
(A, B, C, …).

Compositions (contd)
• Substituting from the above in eq (1.15), we get
dG = V  dP − S  dT +   i dni
(1.24)
i
The μiα are still written at constant S, V and njα.

 G    G    G  

dG = 
 P


T ,n
dP + 
  T


 P ,n
dT +  
 n
 i


 P ,T ,n

dn 
i
(1.25)
i i
i j
• From eq.(1.24) and (1.25),

 G     G   
  = V   = − S
 P   T 
 T ,n

j
  P ,n
j
 G    E  
  =  =   (1.26-8)
 n  i  n 
 i T ,P ,n
j
 i  S ,V ,n

j

• Thus, there are two possible definitions for the chemical
potential but these are completely equivalent.
• Expressions of the type (1.24) can be written for each
phase of a multiphase system. For the system as a whole,
the expressions (1.11) and (1.16) apply, since the overall
system is of constant mass and composition.
• It is almost obvious that in a multiphase system in

equilibrium, all phases have the same pressure and
temperature.
• We shall prove that each phase in such a system has the
same chemical potential.

• Consider two phases α and β within a system at equlm.
• If some amount of component i is transferred from α to β
at constant P, T and nj, then from eq (1.24)
(dG ) P ,T ,n =  i dni (1.29)
j
(dG  ) P ,T ,n  =  i dni = −  i dni

j (1.30)
• The total change in G of the system is given by
(dG) P ,T = (dG ) P ,T ,n + (dG  ) P ,T ,n = (  i −  i )dni (1.31)
j j
• The overall system is a closed system : eq (1.17) applies.


  
• Therefore, (  i −  i ) dni =0 (1.32)
• Since dniα is arbitrary and not necessarily zero,
i = i
(1.33)
• Since the phases α and β as well as the component i are
arbitrary, it follows that the chemical potential of a
component is the same in each phase and is thus
characteristic of the system as a whole at equilibrium.
• This is an important result.
• We shall derive this result in a more general form.

• A general derivation
• Consider an isolated multi-component multiphase
system comprising M phases (, , , …)
• Let each of the phases be
made up of K components
(A, B, C, …).

• Since the internal energy E is an extensive property,
if there is no interaction among phases, we have, for
the total system,
• 𝐸 = 𝐸 𝛼 + 𝐸𝛽 + 𝐸 𝛾 + ⋯ (1)
• 𝑑𝐸 = 𝑑𝐸 𝛼 + 𝑑𝐸𝛽 + 𝑑𝐸 𝛾 + ⋯ (2)

• The individual phases in the total system can
exchange matter as well as heat with the other phases;
each phase can be treated as an open system.
• Further, we assume that each phase is in a state of
internal equilibrium.
• Accordingly, from the combined
statement of first and second laws
of thermodynamics for
open systems, we have,

𝛼
𝑑𝐸 = 𝑇 𝛼 𝑑𝑆 𝛼 − 𝑃𝛼 𝑑𝑉 𝛼 + σ𝐾 𝜇
𝑖=𝐴 𝑖 𝑑𝑛 ∝
𝑖
𝛽 𝛽
+𝑇𝛽 𝑑𝑆𝛽 − 𝑃𝛽 𝑑𝑉𝛽 + σ𝐾
𝑖=𝐴 𝜇𝑖 𝑑𝑛𝑖
𝛾 𝛾 𝛾 𝛾 𝐾 𝛾 𝛾
+𝑇 𝑑𝑆 − 𝑃 𝑑𝑉 + σ𝑖=𝐴 𝜇𝑖 𝑑𝑛𝑖 +⋯ (3)
It is possible to consider changes in volumes (dV),

numbers of moles of components (dni) as well as
changes in heat effects (dS) for each phase, such that
those for the total system remain unaltered.

• In other words, there can be non-zero variations
across the phases inside the total system, such as,
𝛼 𝛼 ∝ ∝ 𝛽 𝛽  
𝑑𝑉 , 𝑑𝑆 , 𝑑𝑛𝐴 , 𝑑𝑛𝐵 , 𝑑𝑉 , 𝑑𝑆 , 𝑑𝑛𝐴 , 𝑑𝑛𝐵 , etc.,
subject to the condition that the cumulative variations
for the total system are zero.
• Therefore, for all variations subject to

• 𝑑𝑆 𝛼 + 𝑑𝑆  + 𝑑𝑆  + ⋯ = 0,
• 𝑑𝑉 𝛼 + 𝑑𝑉  + 𝑑𝑉  + ⋯ = 0,
 
• 𝑑𝑛𝐴∝
+ 𝑑𝑛𝐴 + 𝑑𝑛𝐴 + ⋯ = 0,
∝  
• 𝑑𝑛𝐵 + 𝑑𝑛𝐵 + 𝑑𝑛𝐵 + ⋯ = 0,
∝  
• 𝑑𝑛𝐶 + 𝑑𝑛𝐶 + 𝑑𝑛𝐶 + ⋯ = 0,
•………….
∝  
• 𝑑𝑛𝐾 + 𝑑𝑛𝐾 + 𝑑𝑛𝐾 + ⋯ = 0, (4)
we have 𝑑𝐸 = 0. (5)

• This requires that
• 𝑇𝛼 = 𝑇 = 𝑇 = ⋯
• 𝑃𝛼 = 𝑃 = 𝑃 = ⋯
 
• 𝐴∝ = 𝐴 = 𝐴 = ⋯
 
• 𝐵∝ = 𝐵 = 𝐵 = ⋯
 
• 𝐶∝ = 𝐶 = 𝐶 = ⋯
• ………
 
• 𝐾 = 𝐾 = 𝐾 = ⋯
∝
(6)
• These conditions are general in nature and are valid
for any combination of changes in volumes, numbers
of moles of components as well as changes in heat
effects for each phase, such that those for the total
system remain unaltered.

• As an illustration, consider the case of equilibrium
among three phases ,  and  involving only heat
changes.
• Further, consider the relevant sum of, say, T dS terms
in equation (3) should vanish, i.e.,
• 𝑇 𝛼 𝑑𝑆 𝛼 + 𝑇  𝑑𝑆  + 𝑇  𝑑𝑆  = 0 (7)

• From equation (4), we have,
• 𝑑𝑆  = −(𝑑𝑆 𝛼 + 𝑑𝑆  )
• From which, equation (7) becomes
• (𝑇 𝛼 − 𝑇  )𝑑𝑆 𝛼 + (𝑇  −𝑇  )𝑑𝑆  = 0 (8)
• The quantities 𝑑𝑆 𝛼 and 𝑑𝑆  are chosen to be non-
vanishing.
• Hence we have 𝑇 𝛼 = 𝑇  = 𝑇  and by extending
these arguments, other sets of equations in (6) can be
obtained.
• The equations in (6) together constitute the conditions
of thermodynamic equilibrium.
• The first set of equations indicates equal temperature
across all the phases and ensures thermal equilibrium.
• The second set of equations indicates equal pressure
across all the phases and ensures mechanical
equilibrium.
• All the remaining sets of equations ensure chemical
equilibrium.

• Note that there are a total of K (M-1) independent
equations in the latter sets of equations.
• Further, there are (K-1) independent composition
variables per phase and hence a total of (K-1)M
independent composition variables in the system.
• These numbers will be useful in deriving the
Gibbs Phase Rule,
F=C–P+2

Compositions: Gibbs-Duhem equation
• Eq (1.23) and (1.24) are forms of the combined statement
of the first and second laws for a reversible process in a
homogeneous (open) system.
• Another equivalent form may be derived as follows.
• The internal energy of a phase at fixed P, T and chemical

potentials (and thus composition) can be found by
integrating eq (1.23).
  
E = TS − PV +  i ni
 
+E (1.34)
i
where the last term is the internal energy for initial values
of the S, V and amounts of the components.

1.4. Gibbs-Duhem equation (contd)
• Complete differentiation of equation (1.34) gives
dE = TdS  + S  dT − PdV  − V  dP +  i dni +  ni di

(1.35)
i i
• Subtracting eq (1.23) from (1.35), we obtain
0 = S  dT − V  dP +  ni di
(1.36)
i
• At constant P and T, this becomes
n
i

i d i = 0
(1.37)
• This is a general result called Gibbs-Duhem eqn.
Another combined statement of the first and second laws.

1.5. Partial Molar Properties
• The partial derivative of any extensive function Y with

respect to the number of moles of a component i –
keeping constant the number of moles of all other
components j – is called a partial molar_ (or molal) property
and is designated by the symbol Yi (or Y i ).
• For instance, the chemical potential of i (μi) is the partial
molar Gibbs energy of i:
 G 

Gi =   
   
 ni
i
 T , P ,nj (1.38)
  H    S    V  
H i =   


S i =    
Vi =    (1.39-41)
 ni  
T ,P ,n

j  ni T ,P ,n

j
 ni T ,P ,n

j

1.5. Partial Molar Properties (contd)
• If T and P are fixed, Y depends only on niα

and is thus a homogeneous function of these variables.
 Y 
Y=  ni 
 ni

 P ,T ,nj
=  niYi (1.42)
i
• The total differential of Y at constant T and P leads to


ni dYi = 0 (1.43)
i
• This is the general form of Gibbs-Duhem eqn in (1.37).

Graphical Representation: Method of Intercepts
➢It is clear that YA and YB will depend
on the position of the tangent at the
composition under consideration.
➢It is easy to demonstrate that in a plot

of Ym (Y per mole) versus the mole
fraction XB of B (Fig. 1.1), YA and YB are
measured by the intercepts of the
tangent on the ordinates at XB = 0 and
XB = 1 respectively.
 Ym   Ym 
Y1 = Ym − X 2   Y2 = Ym + (1 − X 2 )  (1.48)
 X 2   X 2 
Method of Intercepts for Ternaries
• For a ternary solution, these correspond to the intercepts
of a tangent plane to the surface representing Gmα.
 Ym   Ym 
Y1 = Ym − X 2   − X 3  
 X 2  X 3  X 3  X 2
 Ym   Ym 
Y2 = Ym + (1 − X 2 )  − X 3  
 X 2  X 3  X 3  X 2
 Ym   Ym 

Y3 = Ym − X 2  
 + (1 − X 3 ) 
 X 2  X 3  X 3  X 2

1.6. Equilibrium Between Two Phases
Common Tangent Construction
• At a given T and P, two binary phases α and β (e.g., solid and
liquid) of components 1 and 2 are interacting with no restriction
on the transfers of mass.
• If the composition of the α phase is X2α, the intercepts of the
two axes by the tangent to the Gα curve at X2α represent μ1α
and μ2α (see Fig. 1.3a).
A similar construction is possible for the phase β characterized
by the composition X2β.
• (a) Non-equlm
• (b) Equlm

Common Tangent Construction (contd)
• At equilibrium, μ1α = μ1β and μ2α = μ2β.

• It is apparent from Fig.1.3b that the two curves Gmα and
Gmβ must then have a common tangent.
• This common tangent determines the composition of the
two phases in equilibrium.
• (a) Non-equlm
• (b) Equlm

Common Tangent Construction (contd)
• For ternary systems, the equilibrium conditions are
μ1α = μ1β, μ2α = μ2β and μ3α = μ3β.
• These correspond to having a common tangent plane to
the two surfaces representing Gmα and Gmβ.

1.7. Additional Topics in Thermodynamics
• Natural variables
• Conjugate variables
• Legendre Transformations
• Exactly differentiable functions
• Entropy as a measure of disorder
• S = k ln W ==> S = - R [ X1 ln X1 + X2 ln X2 ]
• Gibbs function : independent of surroundings !!

1.8. Phase Diagrams: Introduction
• Properties of materials depend on the nature, number, amounts
and forms of the phases present.
• Properties can be changed by alterations in these quantities.
• It is vital in the use of materials to know the conditions under
which any given system will exist in its various possible forms.
• A wealth of such (experimental) information on a large number
systems has been accumulated.
• Plot the number and compositions (and indirectly the amounts)
of phases present as a function of T, P and overall composition.
• These plots are called phase diagrams, constitution diagrams or
equilibrium diagrams.
• Phase diagrams are as indispensable as navigators’ maps
in a voyage through materials design and development !!

1.8. Phase Diagrams: Introduction (contd)
• A notable example is the iron-carbon phase diagram.
• This diagram includes the important alloys known as steel
upon which our modern civilization is based.
• The solid phases shown in the iron-carbon diagram are
three solid solutions of carbon in iron (α- and δ-ferrite and
γ-austenite) and iron carbide, Fe3C (cementite).
• The latter, if given enough time, ultimately decomposes to
graphite and ferrite or austenite.
• Nevertheless, Fe3C is generally shown in the diagram
because in the range of T, P and composition important for
steel, Fe3C is the carbon-rich phase almost invariably
encountered.

1.8. Phase Diagrams: Introduction (contd)
• Initially, the determination and the use of phase diagrams
were largely empirical.
• However, there is a firm basis for such diagrams in the
science of thermodynamics.
• A large number of binary and some multicomponent phase
diagrams have been calculated from thermodynamics
during the last thirty years.
• The calculations are complex, but increasing computing
power at relatively low cost has made this possible.
• Solution models of varying rigour and accuracy are being
employed for this purpose.
• CALPHAD, CVM, First Principles calculations, etc.

20230116-MT-205-PD-BNS-L-4 To L-6 (2022-2023) Notes - 2

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20230116-MT-205-PD-BNS-L-4 To L-6 (2022-2023) Notes - 2

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MT-205 Phase Diagrams

Professor B.N. Sarma

Department of Metallurgical Engg.

IIT (BHU) MT 205 PD BNS L-6 Jan 16, 2023

IIT (BHU) MT 205 PD BNS L-6 Jan 16, 2023

IIT (BHU) MT 205 PD BNS L-6 Jan 16, 2023

IIT (BHU) MT 205 PD BNS L-6 Jan 16, 2023

IIT (BHU) MT 205 PD BNS L-6 Jan 16, 2023

IIT (BHU) MT 205 PD BNS L-6 Jan 16, 2023

IIT (BHU) MT 205 PD BNS L-6 Jan 16, 2023

• Thus, the first two laws of thermodynamics reveal that in a

IIT (BHU) MT 205 PD BNS L-6 Jan 16, 2023

IIT (BHU) MT 205 PD BNS L-6 Jan 16, 2023

IIT (BHU) MT 205 PD BNS L-6 Jan 16, 2023

IIT (BHU) MT 205 PD BNS L-6 Jan 16, 2023

IIT (BHU) MT 205 PD BNS L-6 Jan 16, 2023

• Adding the heat and work terms, the combined eq. is

dE  = TdS  − PdV  +   i dni (1.23)

IIT (BHU) MT 205 PD BNS L-6 Jan 16, 2023

IIT (BHU) MT 205 PD BNS L-6 Jan 16, 2023

The μiα are still written at constant S, V and njα.

• From eq.(1.24) and (1.25),

IIT (BHU) MT 205 PD BNS L-6 Jan 16, 2023

• It is almost obvious that in a multiphase system in

IIT (BHU) MT 205 PD BNS L-6 Jan 16, 2023

(dG  ) P ,T ,n  =  i dni = −  i dni

• The overall system is a closed system : eq (1.17) applies.

IIT (BHU) MT 205 PD BNS L-6 Jan 16, 2023

• We shall derive this result in a more general form.

IIT (BHU) MT 205 PD BNS L-6 Jan 16, 2023

IIT (BHU) MT 205 PD BNS L-6 Jan 16, 2023

IIT (BHU) MT 205 PD BNS L-6 Jan 16, 2023

IIT (BHU) MT 205 PD BNS L-6 Jan 16, 2023

It is possible to consider changes in volumes (dV),

IIT (BHU) MT 205 PD BNS L-6 Jan 16, 2023

IIT (BHU) MT 205 PD BNS L-6 Jan 16, 2023

IIT (BHU) MT 205 PD BNS L-6 Jan 16, 2023

IIT (BHU) MT 205 PD BNS L-6 Jan 16, 2023

IIT (BHU) MT 205 PD BNS L-6 Jan 16, 2023

IIT (BHU) MT 205 PD BNS L-6 Jan 16, 2023

IIT (BHU) MT 205 PD BNS L-6 Jan 16, 2023

• The internal energy of a phase at fixed P, T and chemical

IIT (BHU) MT 205 PD BNS L-6 Jan 16, 2023

• Complete differentiation of equation (1.34) gives

dE = TdS  + S  dT − PdV  − V  dP +  i dni +  ni di

IIT (BHU) MT 205 PD BNS L-6 Jan 16, 2023

• The partial derivative of any extensive function Y with

IIT (BHU) MT 205 PD BNS L-6 Jan 16, 2023

• If T and P are fixed, Y depends only on niα

• The total differential of Y at constant T and P leads to

IIT (BHU) MT 205 PD BNS L-6 Jan 16, 2023

➢It is easy to demonstrate that in a plot

IIT (BHU) MT 205 PD BNS L-6 Jan 16, 2023

IIT (BHU) MT 205 PD BNS L-6 Jan 16, 2023

• At equilibrium, μ1α = μ1β and μ2α = μ2β.

IIT (BHU) MT 205 PD BNS L-6 Jan 16, 2023

IIT (BHU) MT 205 PD BNS L-6 Jan 16, 2023

IIT (BHU) MT 205 PD BNS L-6 Jan 16, 2023

IIT (BHU) MT 205 PD BNS L-6 Jan 16, 2023

IIT (BHU) MT 205 PD BNS L-6 Jan 16, 2023

IIT (BHU) MT 205 PD BNS L-6 Jan 16, 2023

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