Geophysical Techniques

Lab Report: Hysteresis

I) Aim:
 To determine the magnetic properties of a material using hysteresis
loop
 To determine the permeability 𝜇 of the material

II) Theory:

In fact, materials are classified into five classes according to their

magnetization in response to the applied magnetic field.
We are interested in three categories only: ferromagnetism,
diamagnetism and paramagnetism
 Diamagnetism is when materials weakly repel magnetic objects when
a magnetic force is applied to them.
 Paramagnetic objects will briefly align with a magnetic force, but
return to their usual state when the magnetic force is removed.
 Ferromagnetism occurs when the magnetic forces in an object will
align with a magnetic field when it is applied, and then continue to
stay aligned when the forces are removed.
  Magnetic Hysteresis
A magnetic hysteresis, otherwise known as a hysteresis loop, is a
representation of the magnetizing force (H) versus the magnetic flux density
(B) of a ferromagnetic material. The curvature of the hysteresis is
characteristic of the type of material being observed and can vary in size and
shape (i.e. narrow or wide). The loop can be generated by using a Hall
Effect sensor to measure the amount of magnetic field at various points -
when in the presence of a magnetic field, when it is removed from the
magnetic field, and when a force is applied to bring the magnetic flux back
to zero. These loops are important in the memory capacity of devices for
audio recording or magnetic storage of data on computer disks.

Hysteresis loops are generated from the observation of ferromagnetic

materials. Ferromagnetic materials are the most common of the five classes
of magnetic materials: diamagnetic, paramagnetic, ferrimagnetic,
ferromagnetic, and antiferromagnetic. Without a magnetic field,
ferromagnetic materials exhibit paramagnetic behavior wherein their
magnetic dipole moments are random and disordered. Once a ferromagnetic
material is introduced to a magnetic field, however, their dipole moments
align parallel and in the same direction resulting in a much stronger
magnetic field. These dipole moments are so highly ordered that when
removed from the magnetic field, there is still some remnant magnetization.
In order to reduce the magnetic flux back to zero, a coercive force must be
applied wherein the dipole moments cancel each other out. This hysteresis
loop therefore summarizes the pathway that a ferromagnetic material takes
from the addition and removal of a magnetizing force.
Hysteresis Lo op Structure

Hysteresis loops begin at a starting point (H=0) wherein its magnetic dipole
moments are disoriented and the material portrays paramagnetism. When a
magnetizing force (H) is adding to the material, it follows the pathway up to
the saturation point (+Hs). At this point all the magnetic dipole moments are
aligned in the direction of the magnetizing force and the magnetic flux no
longer increases. When H is reduced to zero, some remnant magnetization
remains; this point is known as the retentivity point (+Br). In order to
remove this remnant magnetization, a coercive magnetizing force is applied
in the reverse direction. The point in which there is no longer a magnetic
flux (B=0) due to the cancelation of dipole moments acting in opposite
directions is known as the coercivity point (-Hc). As the magnetizing force
increases in the negative direction, the same saturation occurs as it did
before however in the opposite direction (-Hs). The loop continues with an
equal but opposite retentivity point (-Br) and coercivity point (+Hc) until its
original saturation point (+Hs). Figure 2 portrays this full cycle hysteresis
loop wherein points a and d are the +/- Hs, points b and e are the +/- Br, and
points c and f are the +/- Hc. The magnetic dipole spins at these respective
points can be seen in Figure 3 wherein the spins begin disoriented, then align
with the magnetic field, and finally misalign until the moments cancel each
other out to produce no net magnetic moment. Also notice that the curve
does not ever go back to the origin (B and H=0). In order to get back to this
point, the material will need to be demagnetized (i.e. return to having
paramagnetic behavior) by hitting the material against a surface, reversing
the direction of the magnetizing field, or heating it passed its
Neel temperature. At this temperature, a ferromagnetic material becomes
paramagnetic due to thermal fluctuations in the magnetic dipole moments
that disorient the spins.

Variations of Hyste re sis Loops

There is a significant amount of variation between the hysteresis loops of
different materials. Differences can also be found in the size and shape of a
hysteresis loop. These variations directly relate to the
properties that each material possesses. For instance, a
narrow hysteresis loop implies a small amount of
dissipated energy. This occurs as a result of its small
area and therefore more frequently repeated reversals of
applied magnetizing force. These narrower hysteresis
loops also have high permeability (the slope of B with
respect to H) and low coercivity and magnetization.
Soft magnetic materials used in devices that require
alternating magnetic fields have these narrow hysteresis
shapes. Wider hysteresis loops have high retentivity,
coercivity, and saturation due to their larger hysteresis
loop area. These loops are typically found in hard
magnetic materials. Due to the size, these hysteresis loops have low initial
permeability which leads to higher energy dissipation. For these reasons,
they are utilized in permanent magnets which have high resistance to
demagnetization. Demagnetization is more difficult to achieve in these
wider hysteresis loops because there is a larger area to cover when reversing
the hysteresis loop direction back to its original paramagnetic state. These
hard and soft magnetic materials can be seen in Figure 4.

Impo rtance o f Hysteresis Loops

Hysteresis loops are important in the construction of several electrical
devices that are subject to rapid magnetism reversals or require memory
storage. Soft magnetic materials (i.e. those with smaller and narrower
hysteresis areas) and their rapid magnetism reversals are useful in electrical
machinery that require minimal energy dissipation. Transformers and cores
found in electric motors benefit from these types of materials as there is less
energy wasted in the form of heat. Hard magnetic materials (i.e. loops with
larger areas) have much higher retentivity and coercivity. This results in
higher remnant magnetization useful in permanent magnets where
demagnetization is difficult to achieve. Hard magnetic materials are
also useful in memory devices such as audio recording, computer disk
drives, and credit cards. The high coercivity found in these materials ensure
that memory is not easily erased.

 Magnetic properties:

Permeability is the ability of a material to form a B within itself.

𝐵 (1000×𝐼) 𝑈
𝜇=𝐻 𝐻= 𝐿
𝐵 = 250×𝐴

Where 𝜇: 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦

B: induced magnetization U: voltage

H: applied magnetic field A: Area

I: current L: distance between two coils

Retentivity: is the ability of a material to retain B when H is removed.

Coercivity: is the amount of the reverse B that must be applied to

demagnetize the material.

III) Apparatus:
 Current source
 Teslameter
 Potentiometer
 U-core
 2 coils (N=1000 turns and N=250 turns, L=48 cm)
 Connecting wires
 XY recorder
 LD system
IV) Procedure:
1. Set the teslameter amplifier at 10 and reset button.
2. Set the current source at I=0.4 A
3. Set the potentiometer DC at max and AC at min.
4. Turn on the teslameter and the current source.
5. Wait for 15 minutes.
6. Turn on the potentiometer and XY recorder.
7. Set the reset key to Vs.
8. Start varying the DC amplitude (max-min, min-max).
9. Recorder the hysteresis loop on XY recorder.
10.Wait till the teslameter reads about 2.3
11.Record the loop using LD system.
12.Use F1 key to draw, F6 to save,F5 then alt+F5 to find area of the loop.
13.Use F9 then + to find the ranges of B and H.
1000×𝐼
14.Calculate 𝐻 = 𝐿 where L= 0.48m
𝑈
15.Calculate 𝐵 = 250×𝐴 where A=7.8 v2
16.Repeat the experiment for different currents (Take 20 minutes
between each current).

V) Results and calculations:

Along x-axis: 1 cm = 0.2 V= 0.4 A

Along y-axis: 1cm = 0.5 V

𝐻 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = 19.9 𝑐𝑚 ∴ 𝐼 = 19.9 × 0.4 = 7.96 𝐴

1000×𝐼
𝐻= 𝐿
= 16583.33 𝐴. 𝑚−1

𝐵 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = 2.24 𝑐𝑚 ∴ 𝑈 = 2.24 × 0.5 = 1.12 v

𝑈 1.12
𝐵= = = 5.7 × 10−4 𝑇
250 × 𝐴 250 × 7.8
𝐵 5.7 × 10−4
𝜇= = = 3.46 × 10−8 𝑇𝑚. 𝐴−1
𝐻 16583.33