Magnetic fields

A permanent magnet is a piece of ferromagnetic material (such as iron, nickel or

cobalt) which has properties of attracting other pieces of these materials. A
permanent magnet will position itself in a north and south direction when freely
suspended. The north-seeking end of the magnet is called the North Pole, N, and the
south-seeking end the South Pole, S. The area around a magnet is called the magnetic
field and it is in this area that the effects of the magnetic force produced by the
magnet can be detected.
A magnetic field cannot be seen, felt, smelt or heard and therefore is difficult to
represent. Michael Faraday suggested that the magnetic field could be represented
pictorially, by imagining the field to consist of lines of magnetic flux, which enables
investigation of the distribution and density of the field to be carried out. The
distribution of a magnetic field can be investigated by using some iron filings. A bar
magnet is placed on a flat surface covered by, say, cardboard, upon which is
sprinkled some iron filings. If the cardboard is gently tapped the filings will assume
a given pattern shown in the diagram.

N S

If a number of magnets of different strength are used, it is found that the stronger the
field the closer are the lines of magnetic flux and vice versa. Thus a magnetic field
has the property of exerting a force, demonstrated in this case by causing the iron
filings to move into the pattern. The strength of the magnetic field decreases as we
move away from the magnet.
If a compass is placed in the magnetic field in various positions, the direction of the
lines of flux may be determined by noting the direction of the compass pointer. The
direction of a magnetic field at any point is taken as that in which the north-seeking
pole of a compass needle points when suspended in the field. The direction of a line
of flux is from the north pole to the south pole on the outside of the magnet and is
then assumed to continue through the magnet back to the point at which it emerged
at the north pole. Thus such lines of flux always form complete closed loops or paths,
they never intersect and always have a definite direction.
Magnetic field due to flow of current
Magnetic fields similar to those set up by permanent magnets can also be set up by
electric currents.
If a conductor carrying current is gripped with the right hand, the thumb pointing the
direction of the current, then the fingers point the direction of the magnetic field.
This can also be well illustrated using a cross section as shown in the diagram.

Current flowing away Current flowing towards

from the viewer the viewer

When a conductor is used to make a winding, the magnetic field produced is similar
in pattern to that produced by a permanent magnet. Usually an iron core is placed
inside the winding to concentrate the magnetic flux and form even a stronger
magnetic field.
The direction of the magnetic field can be determined using the right hand grip: The
grip rule states that if the winding is gripped with the right hand, with the fingers
pointing in the direction of the current, then the thumb, outstretched parallel to the
axis of the winding, points in the direction of the magnetic field inside the winding,
hence the north pole end of the winding.

⊕ ⊕ ⊕ ⊕ ⊕ ⊕ ⊕

S
N

⊙ ⊙ ⊙ ⊙ ⊙ ⊙ ⊙

Magnetic flux
Magnetic flux is the amount of magnetic field (or the number of lines of force)
produced by a magnetic source. The symbol for magnetic flux is ∅ and the unit of
magnetic flux is the weber, Wb.

Magnetic flux density

Magnetic flux density is the amount of magnetic flux passing through a defined area
that is perpendicular to the direction of the flux.
𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥
𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
The symbol used for magnetic flux density is B. The unit of magnetic flux density
is Wb/m2 (or Tesla, T). Hence we have:
∅
𝐵 = 𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑙𝑎
𝐴

Magneto-motive force
Magneto-motive force is the pressure that causes existence of a magnetic flux in a
magnetic circuit.
𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 (𝑚𝑚𝑓) = 𝐹𝑚 = 𝑁𝐼 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠

N is the number of conductors (or turns) and I is the current in amperes flowing in
the conductors. Since ‘turns’ have no dimensions, the SI unit of mmf is the ampere,
though sometimes ‘ampere-turn’ is used.

Magnetic field strength

Magnetic field strength is defined as ampere-turn per unit length of the magnetic
circuit. It is also referred to as magnetizing force.
𝑁𝐼
𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑧𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 (𝐻) = 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑙
𝑙 is the mean length of the flux path in meters.
Hence 𝑚𝑚𝑓 = 𝑁𝐼 = 𝐻𝑙 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠

Permeability
For any non-magnetic medium, the ratio of magnetic flux density to magnetizing
force is a constant. This constant, designated as 𝜇0 , is the permeability of free space.
Although all non-magnetic materials, including air, exhibit slight magnetic
properties, these can effectively be neglected and their permeability assumed to be
that of the free space and its value is given by:
𝐵
= 𝜇0 = 4𝜋 × 10−7 𝐻/𝑀
𝐻
For other mediums, we have:
𝐵
= 𝜇𝑟 𝜇0
𝐻

𝜇𝑟 is the relative permeability, and is defined as:

 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙
𝜇𝑟 =
𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚
Relative permeability varies with the type of magnetic material and, since it is a ratio
of flux densities, it has no unit. From its definition, 𝜇𝑟 for a vacuum is 1. 𝜇0 𝜇𝑒 = 𝜇,
is called the absolute permeability

B_H curves
By plotting measured values of flux density B against magnetic field strength H, a
magnetization curve (or B–H curve) is produced. For non-magnetic materials this is
a straight line. For ferro-magnetic materials the B-H curve is not a straight line, their
relative permeability is proportional to the slope of the B–H curve and thus varies
with the magnetic field strength.

B-H curve for non-magnetic

material

Reluctance
Reluctance, S, is the opposition to the flow of magnetic flux in a magnetic circuit.
𝑚𝑚𝑓 −1
𝑆= 𝐻
∅
Reluctance can also be given in terms of the dimensions of the magnetic circuit and
the property of the medium used.
𝑚𝑚𝑓 𝑁𝐼 𝐻𝑙 𝑙
𝑆= = = = 𝐻−1
∅ 𝐵𝐴 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 𝐻𝐴 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 𝐴
Ferromagnetic materials have a low reluctance and can be used as magnetic screens
to prevent magnetic fields affecting materials within the screen.

Composite series magnetic circuits

For a series magnetic circuit having 𝑛 parts, the total reluctance 𝑆 is given by:
𝑆 = 𝑆1 + 𝑆2 + 𝑆3 + ⋯ + 𝑆𝑛
Composite series magnetic circuits
For a parallel magnetic circuit having 𝑛 parts, the total reluctance 𝑆 is given by:
1 1 1 1 1
= + + +⋯+
𝑆 𝑆1 𝑆2 𝑆3 𝑆𝑛

Hysteresis and hysteresis loss

Hysteresis is the ‘lagging’ effect of flux density 𝐵 whenever there are changes in the
magnetic field strength 𝐻. When an initially un-magnetized ferromagnetic material
is subjected to a varying magnetic field strength 𝐻, the flux density 𝐵 produced in
the material varies as shown in the diagram, the arrows indicating the direction of
the cycle. This diagram is known as a hysteresis loop. From the diagram, distance
𝑂𝑋 indicates the residual flux density or remanence, 𝑂𝑌 indicates the coercive force,
and 𝑃𝑃’ is the saturation flux density. Hysteresis results in a dissipation of energy
which appears as a heating of the magnetic material. The energy loss associated with
hysteresis is proportional to the area of the hysteresis loop. The area of a hysteresis
loop varies with the type of material. The area, and thus the energy loss, is much
greater for hard materials than for soft materials. For AC-excited devices the
hysteresis loop is repeated every cycle of alternating current. Thus a hysteresis loop
with a large area (as with hard steel) is often unsuitable since the energy loss would
be considerable. Silicon steel has a narrow hysteresis loop, and thus small hysteresis
loss, and is suitable for transformer cores and rotating machine armatures.
+B

-H Y +H
O
P’

-B
Electromechanical energy conversion
It is known that electrical energy is rarely available naturally and it is required to be
produced. The generator is a well-known device which converts mechanical energy
into electrical energy. Thus there involves a process of energy conversion. Similarly
in many devices it is necessary to convert electrical energy into some other form of
energy such as mechanical, sound, light etc.
Thus the electromechanical energy conversion process involves the transfer of
energy between electrical and mechanical systems, via electric or magnetic fields.
The process of electromechanical energy conversion is reversible in nature apart
from the losses taking place in the device. The energy cannot be created or destroyed
but it can be transformed from one form to another. Hence electromechanical energy
conversion devices are very important. In practice three electromechanical energy
conversion devices are in use:
 The various transducers such as microphone, loudspeakers, strain gauge,
thermocouples etc. These devices handle low energy signals. They normally
operate on vibrating motion.
 The devices which produce the mechanical force or torque based on translator
motion such as electromagnets, relays, solenoids, actuators etc. These devices
handle large energy signals than transducers.
 The devices used for continuous energy conversion using rotational motion
such as generators, motors etc. These devices handle very large energy
signals.

Though energy conversion can take place via electric or magnetic field, the magnetic
field is practically used as it is mostly suited for practical devices and the energy
storing capacity of magnetic field is much higher than that of electric field.
The fields involved in such electromechanical devices must be slow varying due to
inertia associated with mechanical parts. Such fields are called quasistatic fields.