Chapter 18: Magnetic Properties

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• What are the important magnetic properties?

• How do we explain magnetic phenomena?

• How are magnetic materials classified?

• How does magnetic memory storage work?

• What is superconductivity and how do magnetic

fields effect the behavior of superconductors?

1
APPLICATIONS OF
MAGNETS

• DATASTORAGE, WRITING,
READING
• MRI
• NMR
• TRANSFORMAERS
• DAMPERS
• HEAT TRANSFER
(THERMOMAGNETIC
CONVECTION)
• CATALYST FOR POLYMER
WASTE RECYCLE
• Etc.etc

2
Motor Applications Sensing Applications
Power steering motors ABS and anti skid systems
Starter motors Headlight position
Alternators Steering
Engine Cooling fans Road Speed
Windscreen Wipers Inertia sensing (Crash/Airbag)
Washer pumps Throttle
Fuel pumps Engine speed (Crankshaft)
Antenna lift Remote locking/unlocking
Window actuation Tyre pressure sensing
Heat and Air conditioning motors Alarm and security
Seating position motors
Sunroof motors Actuators
ABS pumps Anti skid
Engine water pumps Suspension (both active and self
Headlight positioning leveling)
Throttle
Airbag 3
 Generation of a Magnetic Field -- Vacuum
Magnetic forces are generated by moving electrically charged particles
• Created by current through a coil:
B0 N = total number of turns
 = length of each turn (m)
I = current (ampere)
H
H = Generated magnetic field strength (ampere-
I turns/m)
B0 = magnetic flux density in a vacuum (tesla or Wb/m2 or
(N/m/A)):represents the magnitude of the internal field strength
within a substance that is subjected to an H field
• Computation of the generated magnetic field, H:
NI
H
 
• Computation of the magnetic flux density in a vacuum, B0:
B0 = 0H Both B and H are field vectors
of a vacuum (1.257 x 10-6 Henry/m)
permeability 4
• The henry (symbol H) is the SI derived unit of electrical inductance

• The inductance of an electric circuit is one henry when an electric current that is changing at

one ampere per second results in an electromotive force of one volt across the inductor

Generation of a Magnetic Field - within a Solid Material

• A magnetic field is induced in the material
B B = Magnetic Induction (tesla) inside the material

applied B = H
magnetic permeability of a solid
field H

current I

• Relative permeability (dimensionless) r 
0
The permeability or relative permeability of a material is a measure of
the degree OF ease with which a B field can be induced in the presence
of an external H field. 5
 Generation of a Magnetic Field --
within a Solid Material (cont.)
• Magnetization M = m H
Magnetic susceptibility
(dimensionless)

• B in terms of H and M B = 0H + 0M

• Combining the above two equations:
B = 0H + 0 mH
B cm > 0 = (1 + m)0H
vacuum cm = 0 permeability of a vacuum:
(1.26 x 10-6 Henry/m)
cm < 0 cm is a measure of a material’s
magnetic response relative to a
H vacuum
indicates the degree of magnetization of a material in response to an
applied magnetic field
There is a dielectric analogue for each of the foregoing magnetic field
parameters.

• The B and H fields are, respectively, analogous to the dielectric

displacement D and the electric field .

• Permeability parallels the permittivity.

• Furthermore, the magnetization m and polarization p are

correlates

7
TABLE 18.1

8
 Origins of Magnetic Moments
• Magnetic moments arise from electron motions and the
spins on electrons. The most fundamental magnetic
magnetic moments moment is the Bohr magneton B,
magnitude 9.27 x10-24 A-m2.
electron electron
For each electron in an atom the
nucleus spin spin magnetic moment is  B
(plus for spin up, minus for spin
electron orbital electron down).
motion spin
Orbital magnetic moment
contribution is equal to mlB, ml
• Net atomic magnetic moment: being the magnetic quantum
o sum of moments from all electrons. number of the electron
o orbital magnetic moment contribution is small in comparison to the spin moment
o For Fe, Co, and Ni, the net magnetic moments per atom are 2.22, 1.72, and 0.60
Bohr magnetons, respectively.

Four types of response... 9

 Magnetic Responses for 4 Types
No Applied Applied
Magnetic Field (H = 0) Magnetic Field (H)

opposing
(1) diamagnetic

none
Adapted from Fig.
20.5(a), Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.

random

aligned
(2) paramagnetic Adapted from Fig.
20.5(b), Callister &
aligned Rethwisch 8e.

aligned
(3) ferromagnetic Adapted from Fig.
(4) ferrimagnetic 20.7, Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.

10
 Types of Magnetism

(3) ferromagnetic e.g ferrite(), Co, Ni, Gd

(4) ferrimagnetic e.g. . Fe3O4, NiFe2O4
( cm as large as 106 !)
B (tesla)

(2) paramagnetic ( cm ~ 10-4)

e.g., Al, Cr, Mo, Na, Ti, Zr
vacuum ( cm = 0)
(1) diamagnetic ( cm ~ -10-5)
e.g., Al2O3, Cu, Au, Si, Ag, Zn

H (ampere-turns/m)

Diamagnetic<vacuum<paramagnetic< ferromagnetic<ferromagnetic
11
TABLE 18.2

12
13
14
 ANTIFERROMAGNETISM
FIGURE 18.8
Schematic representation of antiparallel
alignment of spin magnetic moments for
antiferromagnetic manganese oxide.

the alignment of the spin moments of

neighboring atoms or ions in exactly
opposite directions is termed
antiferromagnetism.

the opposing magnetic moments cancel one another, and, as a

consequence, the solid as a whole possesses no net magnetic
moment. 15
Ferrimagnetism
The spinel A2+B3+2O4 structure
• FCC of O2-
• Mg2+ in tetrahedral sites (1/8 filled)
• Al3+ in octahedral sites (half filled)
The mineral Spinel Mg2+Al23+O42- is obtained by placing O2- on an FCC lattice and filling SOME tetrahedral
sites with Mg2+ and filling some octahedral sites with Al3+.
The complete unit cell requires 32 O, 16 Al, and 8 Mg atoms to define it.
Magnetite: Inverse spinel structure
Crystalline structure
Cubic inverse spinel structure :
O2- ions form frame of face centered cubic lattice, a = 0.8398 nm
A

a
O

Ionic model: [Fe3+]A [Fe3+Fe2+]B O2-

• Fe3+ occupies 1/8 tetrahedral positions (A)

• Fe3+and the same amount of Fe2+ occupy 1/2 possible
FERRIMAGNETISM

19
20
21
22
23
24
Compute the total Bohr magneton B associated
with the inverse spinel structure NiFe2O4

Show all calculation steps and logics clearly.

THE INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE ON MAGNETIC BEHAVIOR
• The atomic magnetic moments are free to rotate; hence, with rising
temperature, the increased thermal motion of the atoms tends to randomize
the directions of any moments that may be aligned
• For ferromagnetic,
antiferromagnetic, and
ferrimagnetic materials, the
atomic thermal motions
counteract the coupling forces
between the adjacent atomic
dipole moments, causing some
dipole misalignment, regardless of
whether an external field is
present.
• at 0 K temperature the thermal
vibrations are a minimum. The
magnetization is a maximum;
Called MAX saturation magnetization
• With increasing temperature, the saturation magnetization diminishes
gradually and then abruptly drops to zero at what is called the Curie
temperature Tc.
Antiferromagnetism is also affected by temperature; this
behavior vanishes at what is called the Néel temperature. At
temperatures above this point, antiferromagnetic materials also
become paramagnetic.

random

aligned
(2) paramagnetic Adapted from Fig.
20.5(b), Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.

(3) ferromagnetic e.g ferrite(), Co, Ni, Gd

(4) ferrimagnetic e.g. . Fe3O4, NiFe2O4
( cm as large as 106 !)
B (tesla)

(2) paramagnetic ( cm ~ 10-4)

e.g., Al, Cr, Mo, Na, Ti, Zr
vacuum ( cm = 0)
(1) diamagnetic ( cm ~ -10-5)
e.g., Al2O3, Cu, Au, Si, Ag, Zn

H (ampere-turns/m) 27
 DOMAINS AND HYSTERESIS
Any ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic material that is at a
temperature below Tc is composed of small-volume regions
in which there is a mutual alignment in the same direction
of all magnetic dipole moments

Such a region is called a domain, and each one is

magnetized to its saturation magnetization. Adjacent
domains are separated by domain boundaries or walls,
across which the direction of magnetization gradually
changes

Normally, domains are microscopic in size, and

for a polycrystalline specimen, each grain may
consist of more than a single domain.
For an unmagnetized specimen, the appropriately
weighted vector sum of the magnetizations of all the
domains is zero.
28
MAGNETIC ANISOTROPY
Shape of the hysteresis curves depends on various factors:
whether the specimen is a single crystal or polycrystalline; the B (or M) versus
H curve for a single crystal of a ferromagnetic material depends on its
crystallographic orientation relative to the direction of the applied H field.
single crystals Co

Easy axis is the direction inside a crystal, along which small applied magnetic
field is sufficient to reach the saturation magnetization.
Hard axis is the direction inside a crystal, along which large applied magnetic
field is needed to reach the saturation magnetization.
For BCC Fe the highest density of atoms is in the <111>direction , and
consequently is the hard axis. In contrast, the atom density is lowest in
<100> directions and consequently is the easy axis.

For FCC Ni the <111> is lowest packed direction and it is the easy axis..

For hcp Co the <0001> is the lowest packed direction (perpendicular to

the close-packed plane) and is the easy axis.

30
The magnetic hysteresis curves will have different shapes depending on
various factors:
1. whether the specimen is a single crystal or polycrystalline;
2. if polycrystalline, any preferred orientation of the grains;
3. The presence of pores or second-phase particles;
4. other factors such as temperature and,
5. if a mechanical stress is applied, the stress state.

31
CPP11 (8/04/2017): Marks 3. Each group 2
Please mention the following point in your answer sheet

• Name
• ID
• CPP
• Date

32
 Domains in Ferromagnetic & Ferrimagnetic Materials
• As the applied field (H) increases the magnetic domains change shape
and size by movement of domain boundaries.

Bsat Complete alignment of the domain

along the field  saturation
H
H
induction (B)

domains whose directions of easy magnetization

H are most closely aligned with the H field grow
Magnetic

(energetically favorable), at the expense of the

H other domains that shrink
Here, each of the arrows represents a domain’s
H direction of easy magnetization
0 Applied Magnetic Field (H)

H=0
On occasion, the slope of the B versus H curve at H = 0 is
specified as a material property, which is termed the initial
permeability i,
Hysteresis and Permanent Magnetization
Adapted from Fig. 20.14,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
• The magnetic hysteresis phenomenon

B
Stage 2. Apply H,
Stage 3. Remove H, alignment align domains
remains! => permanent magnet!

H
Stage 4. Coercivity, HC
Negative H needed to Stage 1. Initial (unmagnetized state)
demagnitize!

Stage 6. Close the

Stage 5. Apply -H, hysteresis loop
align domains

34
35
 it is possible to reverse the direction of the
field at any point along the curve and
generate other hysteresis loops.

it is not necessary to increase the H

field to saturation before
reversing the field direction;
36
Comparison of B-versus-H behaviors for ferromagnetic/ferrimagnetic
and diamagnetic/ paramagnetic materials

37
 Hard and Soft Magnetic Materials
Hard magnetic materials:
-- large coercivities
B
-- used for permanent magnets
-- add particles/voids to
inhibit domain wall motion
-- example: tungsten steel --

Hard
Hc = 5900 amp-turn/m)

Soft
Soft magnetic materials: H
-- small coercivities
-- used for electric motors
-- example: commercial iron 99.95 Fe

The energy lost as heat, which is

known as the hysteresis loss, in
reversing the magnetization of the Adapted from Fig. 20.19, Callister &
Rethwisch 8e. (Fig. 20.19 from K.M. Ralls,
material is proportional to the area of T.H. Courtney, and J. Wulff, Introduction to
Materials Science and Engineering, John
the hysteresis loop.  Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1976.)
38
• The saturation field or magnetization is determined only by the
composition of the material. For example, in cubic ferrites, substitution of a
divalent metal ion such as Ni2+ for Fe2+ in will change the saturation
magnetization.

• However, susceptibility and coercivity which also influence the shape of

the hysteresis curve, are sensitive to structural variables rather than to
composition.

• Structural defects such as particles of a nonmagnetic phase or voids in

the magnetic material tend to restrict the motion of domain walls, and
thus increase the coercivity.

• Consequently, a soft magnetic material must be free of such structural

defects.

39
Electrical resistivity of soft magnetic materials
• In addition to the hysteresis energy losses, energy losses may result from
electrical currents that are induced in a magnetic material by a magnetic
field that varies in magnitude and direction with time; these are called eddy
currents.

40
• It is most desirable to minimize these energy losses in soft magnetic
materials by increasing the electrical resistivity.

• This is accomplished in ferromagnetic materials by forming solid

solution alloys; iron–silicon and iron–nickel alloys are examples.

• The ceramic ferrites are commonly used for applications requiring

soft magnetic materials because they are intrinsically electrical
insulators.

• Their applicability is somewhat limited, however, inasmuch as they

have relatively small susceptibilities

41
42
HARD MAGNETIC MATERIALS

• Coercivity

• (BH)max (“energy product,” ): corresponds to the area of the largest

B-H rectangle that can be constructed within the second quadrant
of the hysteresis curve,
43
High-Energy Hard Magnetic Materials

44
 Magnetic Storage
• Digitized data in the form of electrical signals are transferred to and recorded
digitally on a magnetic medium (tape or disk) .

• This transference is accomplished by a recording system that consists of a

read/write head
-- “write” or record data by applying a magnetic field that aligns domains in
small regions of the recording medium
-- “read” or retrieve data from medium by sensing changes in magnetization

Fig. 20.23, Callister & 45

Rethwisch 8e.
 Magnetic Storage Media Types
• Hard disk drives (granular/perpendicular media):

-- CoCr alloy grains (darker regions) separated by oxide

80 nm
grain boundary segregant layer (lighter regions)

-- Magnetization direction of each grain is perpendicular

to plane of disk

Fig. 20.25, Callister

& Rethwisch 8e.

• Recording tape (particulate media): (Fig. 20.25 from

Seagate Recording
Media)

Fig. 20.24, Callister

~ 500 nm
~ 500 nm

& Rethwisch 8e.

(Fig. 20.24
courtesy Fuji Film
Inc., Recording
Media Division)

-- Acicular (needle-shaped) -- Tabular (plate-shaped)

ferromagnetic metal alloy ferrimagnetic barium-ferrite
particles particles 46
 Magnetic Moments of a Single Unpaired
Electron
• Each electron spinning about its own axis has dipole
moment μB
μB = eh/4πm μB = Bohr magneton
e = Electron charge
• In paired electrons h = Plank’s constant
positive and negative m = Electron mass
moments cancel.

For each electron in an atom the relation of spin magnetic

moment with Electron charge, Plank’s constant, and Electron
mass can be expressed exactly by the equation
Types of Energies that Determine the Structure
• Magnetostatic energy: Potential energy produced by
Magnetic (internal/external) field.
 Formation of multiple
domain reduces
magnetostatic energy.

Most stable structure is

attained when overall
potential energy is
minimum.
Potential energy with a
domain is minimized when all
atomic dipoles are aligned in
single direction.
 Magnetostrictive Energy
• Magnetostriction: Magnetically induced reversible elastic
strain.
• Energy due to mechanical stress created by magnetostriction
is called magnetostriction energy.
• It is due to change in bond length caused by rotation of dipole
moments.
• Equilibrium domain configuration is reached when sum of
magnetostrictive and domain wall energies are minimum.

Figure 16.16 Figure 16.17

 Superconductivity
Found in 26 metals and hundreds of alloys & compounds

Mercury

Copper
(normal)

4.2 K
Fig. 20.26, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

• TC = critical temperature
= temperature below which material is superconductive
50
BCS Theory
    John Bardeen, Leon Cooper, and Robert Schreiffer proposed the first major
microscopic theory in 1957, now known as the BCS theory .  
• At normal temperatures, the positive lead ions vibrate away on the spot and constantly collide
with the electron bath around them.

• It is these collisions that cause the electrical resistance that wastes energy and produces heat in
any normal circuit.

• But the cooler the solid gets, the less energy the ions have, so the less they vibrate.

• When lead reaches its critical temperature, the ions' vibrations are incredibly weak and no longer
the dominant form of motion in the lattice.

• The tiny attractive force of passing electrons that's always been there is suddenly enough to drag
the positive ions out of position towards them.

• When positive ions are drawn towards a passing electron, they create an area that's more
positive than their surroundings, so another nearby electron is drawn towards them.

• Those electrons are on the move though, so by the time the second one has arrived the first one
has moved on and created a path of higher positivity that the second electron keeps on following.

• These electron duos are called Cooper pairs, and they're what's behind the crazy sounding
behaviour of superconductors.
http://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2011/07/20/3273635.htm 51
Critical Properties of Superconductive Materials
TC = critical temperature - if T > TC not superconducting
JC = critical current density - if J > JC not superconducting
HC = critical magnetic field - if H > HC not superconducting
 T2 
H C (T )  H C (0)1  2 
 TC 

The minimum magnetic

field required to destroy
the superconducting state
is called the critical
magnetic field HC

Fig. 20.27, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

52
 Meissner Effect
• Superconductors expel magnetic fields at T < TC
• Here H < HC

normal superconductor
Fig. 20.28, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

53
On the basis of magnetic response, superconducting materials may be
divided into two classifications designated as type I and type II

54
Type I: Al, Pb Type II: Nb3Sn, YBa2Cu3O7

55
56
 Advances in Superconductivity
• Research in superconductive materials was stagnant for many
years.
– Everyone assumed TC,max was about 23 K
– Many theories said it was impossible to increase TC beyond
this value
• 1987- new materials were discovered with TC > 30 K
– ceramics of form Ba1-x Kx BiO3-y
– Started enormous race
• Y Ba2Cu3O7-x TC = 90 K
• Tl2Ba2Ca2Cu3Ox TC = 122 K
• difficult to make since oxidation state is very important
• The major problem is that these ceramic materials are
inherently brittle.

57
 Summary
• A magnetic field is produced when a current flows
through a wire coil.
• Magnetic induction (B):
-- an internal magnetic field is induced in a material that is
situated within an external magnetic field (H).
-- magnetic moments result from electron interactions with
the applied magnetic field
• Types of material responses to magnetic fields are:
-- ferrimagnetic and ferromagnetic (large magnetic susceptibilities)
-- paramagnetic (small and positive magnetic susceptibilities)
-- diamagnetic (small and negative magnetic susceptibilities)
• Types of ferrimagnetic and ferromagnetic materials:
-- Hard: large coercivities
-- Soft: small coercivities
• Magnetic storage media:
-- particulate barium-ferrite in polymeric film (tape)
-- thin film Co-Cr alloy (hard drive) 58
SELF STUDY PROBLEMS
18.12
18.13
18.14
18.23
18.D1

59