Lecture 1, 2 & 3: Introduction and Motivation

1) What does LCOE stand for? In which units is it calculated? levelized cost of energy
(Euro/KWh)

2) What do you need to know in order to calculate LCOE (as defined in the lecture) cross
all boxes a b e f g
a. Efficiency of the solar module
b. Costs of the solar module
c. Name of the provider
d. The location the solar module is installed
e. Lifetime of the solar module
f. The costs for recycling
g. The number of sun hours / year
3) How many sun hours / year can you expect in Germany vs a region in the desert belt
around the equator? Germany : 800 and 1200kwh/m2 equator : 1800 2200 kwh/m2
4) If your PV power field sees twice the hours of sun / year, is electricity (as calculated by
LCOE) than twice as cheap
a. Yes
b. No
5) In which units do you give
a. Efficiency of a solar cell. %
b. Costs of a solar modules currency/unit of power ( kwh)
c. Costs for electricity currency / kwh
6) How much power / year (in the average) does a solar field produce based on 20 %
modules, in the desert belt (2000 hrs / year) and at an area usage of about 50 %. State the
solar constant. For simplicity, you can use the AM1.5 solar constant for calculations. In
case you use a different solar constant, state this explicitly.
Power output = Area x Module Efficiency x Solar Irradiance x Area Usage x Time
Power output = 200 KWH/year.m2

7) How much energy does mankind need / year. How much power does mankind need In the
Year 2019 > 20 T/s. , tetra w

8) How much area would it take to nominally cover the world´s energy consumption with
photovoltaic power?
c. 500.000 km.

9) Which of these units are energy units ( a b d f ) and which are power units ( c g )
a. BTU
b. Joule
c. Watt
d. Mtoe
 e. Gallon of gasoline
f. Calorie
g. HP (horse power)

10) How many Joules are 1 kWh? How many Joules are 1 kg of H2? 1 kWh (kilowatt-hour) is equal
to 3.6 x 106 joules (J).
The energy content of 1 kg of H2 can be calculated using the mass-energy equivalence formula,
E=mc2,
E = (1 kg) x (3 x 108 m/s)2 = 9 x 1016 J
11) Explain the GDP.Is there a correlation between the GDP of a nation and the kWh / capita
spent? How does that relation look like? Draw a schematic graph, label the axis and give
the units you are using. GDP stands for Gross Domestic Product, which is the total value of
all goods and services produced within a country's borders in a given period of time
(usually a year); here is a positive correlation between a country's GDP and its energy
consumption per capita.
12) Explain the HDI. Is there a correlation between the HDI of a nation and the kWh / capita
spent? How does that relation look like? Draw a schematic graph, label the axis and give
the units you are using. HDI stands for Human Development Index, which is a composite
index that measures a country's level of human development based on three dimensions:
health, education, and standard of living (measured by gross national income per capita).
13) What are the primary sources of energy world wide used. List the top 5 energy
resources and mention which of the is renewable and which is not. Oil , coal ,
natural gas ,nuclear power , renewables.
14) Explain the term “Terawatt Challenge”, as originally defined by Richard Smalley.
Adapting our energy infrastructure to simultaneously address diminishing oil resources and
rising levels of atmospheric CO2. The Terawatt Challenge is the need to develop a new power
source capable of increasing our energy output by a minimum factor of two by 2050.

15) In terms of managing the Terawatt Challenge: which of the scenarios requires less
primary energy. The “all electric” scenario or the “long time storage” scenario transiting
from fossile storage to non-fossile energy carriers. How much of difference is between
these scenarios
a. No difference
b. Factor of 5
c. Factor of 50
16) What is the annual solar irradiation on the earth surface in relation to the annual power
consumption? Which renewable energies can contribute a significant share. List the top 5
technologies and rank them along their potential. Give the units you are using for the
ranking. Earth 1.107 TW : wind 14TW , biomass 5-7 TW , geothermal 1,9 TW , tide 0,7
TW , hydroelec 1,2 TW
17) A car is using 1 gallon of fuel/ 100 km. (for simplicity – calculate the gallon with 4 l, and
the gallon with 1.3*108 J)
a. How far can the car drive if it has a tank with a capacity of 24 kWh? Therefore,
the car can drive for 0.6667 / 0.01 = 67.5km
Amount of Fuel (l) = (𝑇𝑎𝑛𝑘 𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 )/(𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 ) = (24 kWh)/
(8.9 𝑘𝑊ℎ/𝑙) = 2.7 𝑙
 Travelling distance (km) = (amount of fuel )/(average travelling distance using 4 l)
= (2.7 l)/(4 l/(100 km)) = 67.5 𝑘𝑚

b. How far can an electric car drive which is has about 2x higher energy
efficiency with a 24 kWh battery pack.
𝑇𝑎𝑛𝑘 𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 24 kWh
Amount of Fuel (l) = = = 2.7 𝑙
𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑘𝑊ℎ
8.9
𝑙
2.7 l
Travelling distance using the fuel (km) = = 135 km
l
2
100 km

If we assume that when the battery pack is used, the car consumes 14 kWh/100 km, hence,
24 𝑘𝑊ℎ
Travelling distance using battery (km) = = 171.4 km
𝑘𝑊ℎ
14 100 𝑘𝑚
Total Travelling distance (km) = 135 + 171.4 = 306.4 km

18) Your car has the same fuel efficiency with gasoline as with hydrogen. How far can you
drive with 12 kg of Hydrogen, assuming your car requires 6 l gasoline / 100 km (for
simplicity you can convert the gallon with 4 l and assume that a gallon of gasoline contains
the same energy as 1 kg of hydrogen) .
If your car has the same fuel efficiency as gasoline as with hydrogen. How far can you drive with 12
kg of Hydrogen, assuming your car requires 6 l gasoline / 100 km (for simplicity you can convert the
gallon with 4 l)
kWh
Hydrogen capacity kWh = 10 kg × HHV × effeciency % = 10 kg × 39.4 × 0.5
𝑘𝑔
= 197 𝑘𝑊ℎ
If we assume that when the battery pack is used, the car consumes 29 kWh/100 km, hence,
197 𝑘𝑊ℎ
Travelling distance using battery (km) = = 679.3 km
𝑘𝑊ℎ
29 100 𝑘𝑚

19) Our power consumption is about 20 TJ every second. Assuming that gasoline / oil / coal
contain are equivalent to 35MJ/48MJ/53MJ per kg,
a. How many tons of gasoline / oil / coal per second do we have to burn to
provide that energy.
𝐺𝐽
𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ( 𝑠 )
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑁𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 20 𝑇𝑊 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝐺𝐽
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 ( )
𝑡𝑜𝑛
Therefore, we would need to burn approximately 476.2 t/s of gasoline,
487.8t/s, or 833.3t/s of coal per second to provide 20 TJ of energy.
b. What is the area of photovoltaics that can deliver such power.
we would need approximately 100.000 km² of photovoltaic panels to generate 20 TJ of energy
per second.
20) What is the amount of batteries (in TWh storage capacity) which is required to store the
amount of solar energy produced in 2022 for one year. What would be the costs for that,
assuming that Li ion batteries cost about 100 €/kWh?
Assuming that the total amount of solar energy produced in 2022 is 320 GWh and
assuming a required storage duration of 24 hours.
So, the total energy that needs to be stored would be: 320 GW x 24 hours = 7.68 TWh
Assuming that the energy storage capacity of one battery is 1 kWh/battery, then the
number of batteries needed would be: 7.68 TWh / 1 kWh = 7.68 x 10 9 batteries.
The cost of battery storage capacity = 7.68 x 109 kWh x 100 €/kWh = 7.68 x 1012 €.

21) Assuming we will have 1 Mio electrical cars driving in Germany, with all of them having a
50 kWh battery. How much PV (installations in peak power) can be stored in these cars for
one year? Assuming a fuel efficiency of 15 kWh / 100 km, how far will the 1 Mio cars
drive with that energy?
The total amount of energy storage in these cars would be: 1,000,000 cars x 50 kWh/car = 50,000,000
kWh = 50 GWh
If the average efficiency of photovoltaic (PV) installations is around 20 %. PV power over the course
of a year = 50 GWh / 0.20 = 250 GWh
Therefore, around 250 GWh of PV power would need to be installed to fully charge the batteries of 1
million electric cars in Germany for a year.
The total distance = 250x106 kWh/15 kwh/100 km/15 kWh = 1.67 x109 km

22) Name enabling technologies for a 100 % photovoltaic energy scenario

a. Battery storage
b. Solar thermal power plants
c. Intelligent grid with High Power DC Transmission
d. Hydrogen storage
e. Nuclear power plants
f. Better thermal insulation
g. Battery cars
h. advanced control and monitoring systems for grids and power plants
23) What was the efficiency of the first solid state solar cells based on Selenium as
absorber? When have the first solar cells based on the Selenium been published?
First was 1% around 1941 then 6% around 1954
24) What is the efficiency of single junction solar cells today? What is the (are the) leading
technologies? Name at least three market relevant photovoltaic technologies ascategorized
by the semiconductor! Varies depending on the manufacturing tech , In 2021 a single-
junction solar cell is over 27%, using perovskite-based materials.
Silicon based , thin film and perovskites cells .

25) What was the development time of the silicon technology, taken the time from the first report
on silicon based solar cells from Bell labs till scaling the technology to a world- wide
cumulative volume of 1 MW (0,5 MW) / 1 GW / 1 TW?
In 1954 Bell's Laboratories published the results of the solar cells operation with 4.5 % efficiency. The
efficiency increased to 6 % within a few months.
In 1960, Hoffman Electronics introduced yet another solar cell with 14 % efficiency.
In 1962 W. Shockley, H.J. Queisser publish a paper describing the efficiency limits of Solar Cells. J.
 Appl. Phys. 32 (1961) 510.
In 1963, Sharp Corporation developed the first usable photovoltaic module from silicon solar cells
(242 W). 1960s intensive development of PV-technology for Extraterrestrial Applications. (Vanguard
got launched in 1958) 1970s Establishment of large photovoltaic companies.
In 1977, the world production of photovoltaic modules exceeded 500 kW.
Around 1980 - the first photovoltaic systems for the third world rural areas.
In 1985, research of University of New South Wales in Australia have constructed a solar cell with
more than 20 % efficiency.

26) Draw the learning curve for silicon photovoltaics (ITRPV roadmap). Label the axis.
27) Explain the unit €/Wp in the ITRPV roadmap. What is the advantage of using this
number as compared to reporting €/m2? The unit €/Wp in the ITRPV roadmap
represents the cost of photovoltaic (PV) modules per watt-peak (Wp), which is a
measure of the maximum power output of the module under standardized test
conditions. This unit takes into account the efficiency of the module, as higher
efficiency modules will produce more power per unit area and thus have a lower cost
per Wp.

28) At the current learning rate of 23.2 % for the ITRPV roadmap – estimate at which
volume silicon PV will achieve the 0.1 €/Wp threshold. a cumulative volume of
approximately 47.4 TW.
Let's assume the current cost of silicon PV is around 0.15 €/Wp and the current cumulative production
volume is 1 terawatt-peak (TWp), which is equivalent to 1 trillion watts-peak.
Using these values, we can calculate the cumulative production volume required to achieve the 0.1
€/Wp threshold:
output2 = 1 TWp x exp ((ln (0.15/0.1))/0.232) = 4.87 TWp
Therefore, silicon PV will achieve the 0.1 €/Wp threshold when the cumulative production volume
reaches approximately 4.87 TWp.

29) Will silicon reach the 0.1 €/Wp threshold? What are arguments that silicon will bypass this
threshold, what are arguments that I will not bypass? What are the factors dominating the
ITRPV learning curve? Yes it will , arguments that passby : ongoing advancement
technologies as well as economies of scale. Argument not passby : material availability and
rising cost of raw materials.factors are improvement in cell and modules effiencies
economies of scales manufacturing of processes.
30) Explain the performance ratio (PR) of a PV power plant. What does a PR of 100 %
mean? Does this mean that the power plant is converting 100 % of all the incident solar
energy? The performance ratio (PR) of a PV power plant is the ratio of the actual
energy output of the plant to the theoretical energy output that could be generated
 based on the amount of sunlight hitting the solar panels.
31) Explain the term Energy payback time (EPBT) for a photovoltaic installation.
a. What are the factors dominating the EPBT? Irradiance , regulations , grid
effiency , effiency of solar cell
b. Does the EPBT differ for different countries? yes
c. What is today´s EPBT in Germany (in years)? From 1.5 to 2.5 (1.25)
32) Explain the term “grid parity”? Which electricity price was historically used for the
definition of grid parity? Grid parity refers to the point at which the cost of electricity
generated by renewable energy sources (such as solar or wind) becomes equal to or
lower than the cost of electricity purchased from the grid. in other words, it is the point
where renewable energy becomes competitive with traditional fossil fuel-based
electricity.
Historically, the definition of grid parity was based on the retail price of electricity

33) Explain the term “feed-in tariff”

a. Under FIT – who is paying for the build-up of renewable power? The state or
the consumers?
b. What is the advantage of the FIT?
c. What is the disadvantage of the FIT?

b. The advantage of FIT is that it provides a financial incentive for the development of
renewable energy sources. This helps to encourage investment in renewable energy projects and
promotes the adoption of clean energy technologies.

c. The disadvantage of FIT is that it can lead to higher electricity prices for consumers. The
costs associated with the FIT system are often passed on to consumers through higher electricity
bills, which can create resistance from some consumers. Additionally, FITs may not always
result in efficient allocation of resources, as the payments for renewable energy production may
not always align with the actual costs of producing that energy.

34) Is solar energy a „threat“ to politics and finance as it would socialize the society, when
everyone can „produce“ his energy? Explain (argue) your choice in few words!
a. Yes
b. No
It depends as this is a topic of debate where it could yes, due to the fact that the communities will be
independence of the central power distribution and it could be no, as the solar energy will provide
another job opportunities stimulating economic growth and reducing the cost of energy for consumers.
The transition to solar energy could also reduce greenhouse gas emissions and help mitigate the effects
of climate change, which could have significant social and environmental benefits.

35) Extrapolate the „Learning Curve“ to 0.1 $/Wp or 0.01 $/Wp. (the corresponding graph will
be included if this question is chose for the exam
a. At which cumulative installed volume are these values achieved.
b. Would the costs for solar electricity go to zero ct/kWh is we would reach
module costs of 0 €/Wp
i. Yes (explain why?)
ii. No (explain why?)
Lecture 4: Fundamentals of PV

36) What is the basic principle of a solar cell?

a. It converts energy into electricity.
b. It converts heat into electricity.
c. It converts light into electricity.
37) Solar cells can be made from (cross as many options as correct
a. Semiconductors?
b. Metals
c. Crystals
d. Molecules
e. Insulators
38) Draw the band diagram of a semiconductor versus a metal? Label the bands with their
names. Indicate as well the work function respectively the Fermi level.

39) Which material parameters primarily determine the performance of a solar cell
a. Mobility?
b. Dielectric constant?
c. Young´s modulus?
d. Absorption coefficient?
e. Photoluminescence quantum efficiency?
f. Charge carrier lifetime?
g. Piezoelectric effect?
h. Polarizability of the material?
40) List the essential processes in a solar cell (at least three) absorption of photon ,
generation of charge carriers , transport of charges through the cell.
41) What is the difference between a photovoltaic cell and a photoconductor?
The main difference between a photovoltaic (PV) cell and a photoconductor is in their
respective modes of operation. A PV cell generates electrical power directly from
sunlight by converting photon energy into electrical energy through the photovoltaic
effect, while a photoconductor is a material that changes its electrical conductivity
when exposed to light.
42) Compare the efficiency of a solar cell (record cells) to other technologies. Explain how
efficiency is defined here. Rank specifically:
a. Incandescent light bulb 5%
b. Cars 20-30%
c. LEDs 60%
d. Electrical motor 98%
e. Water turbine 90%
43) Draw a typical jV curve of a solar cell. Mark and label the axes and the important
physical characteristic parameters. How do you calculate the efficiency of a solar cell
knowing the photovoltaic characteristics like Voc or Jsc?

44) How is the FF of a solar cell determined from its jV curve? by measuring the jV curve of the
solar cell and determining the values of Isc, Voc, and mpp.

45) How is the FF of a solar cell calculated when knowing the mpp point as well as Voc and
Jsc.

46) Draw a plot of the power of a solar cell (j*V) versus the voltage. Explain the
minimum. How is that point called?
47) Draw the “ideal” equivalent circuit of a solar cell under light and in the absence of
resistive losses

48) Draw the “realistic” equivalent circuit of a solar cell in the presence of resistive losses

49) Write down the idealistic diode equation. Explain the parameters.

50) Write down the realistic diode equation. Explain the parameters.

51) Write down the equation for determining the Voc when knowing Jsc and J0.
52) Draw the jV curve of an ideal diode vs a “shunted” diode in the dark in a linear scale as
well as semi-logarithmic scale.

53) Draw the jV curve of an ideal cell vs a shunted solar cell under light. Which parameter is
more affected – Voc or Jsc?

54) Draw the jV curve of an ideal solar cell vs a solar cell which is “significantly” limited bya
series resistance in the dark in a linear as well as logarithmic scale.

55) Draw the jV curve of an ideal solar cell versus a solar cell which is “significantly” limited
by a series resistance under light? Which parameter is more affected – Voc orJsc?
56) Your silicon solar cell has a Jsc =40 mA/cm2, a Voc of 0.7 and a FF of 0.75 at STC
(standard conditions: 1 sun with 1000 W/m2 and a room temperature).

a. What is the efficiency in % Therefore, the efficiency of the solar cell is 21%.

b. What is J0, assuming that Rs and Rp are negligible and the solar cell has an
ideality factor of 1. Therefore, the reverse saturation current density J0 is
1,94 x 10^-9 mA/cm2.

c. How would Voc change, if you´d assume J0 to be 1000 times larger?

Voc= 0,44V

Lecture 5: Solar Radiation

57) What is the value of the solar constant AM0. 1367 W/m2
58) How does the value of the solar constant scale with the distance d of the earth to the sun
a. Linear - d
b. Quadratically – d^2
c. Invers- 1/d
d. Inverse quadratically – 1/d^2

59) Explain the concentration factor C (either in words or in drawing). How large is the solar
concentration factor at the surface of earth? C=power density sun / power density earth =
46167
60) What is the maximum concentration of solar light you can focus onto earth. How is that
factor called? Power density light = 63.11MW/M2
61) Draw the spectral irradiance as a function of wavelength. In which units is the spectral
irradiance reported? (W/m2.nm)
62) Which theoretical model describes the spectral irradiance of the sun quite well? What is
the most important parameter determining the model. Which value has that parameter for
our sun (pls give the units of that parameter as well) blackbody radiation model or plank’s
law of radiation. The temperature of emitter.
a. 580 K
b. 3300 K
c. 5800 K
d. 9600K

63) How does the maximum spectral irradiance shift with temperature? Can you qualitatively
draw a typical curve for two different temperatures (spectral irradiance asa function of
wavelength) in a double logarithmic scale.
The maximum spectral irradiance (also known as the peak wavelength) of blackbody
radiation shifts towards shorter wavelengths as the temperature increases, according
to Wien's displacement law.

64) Schematically explain the difference between direct and diffuse radiation
direct radiation travels in a straight line from the sun to the Earth's surface, while diffuse
radiation is scattered by the atmosphere before reaching the surface.
65) Write down the equation for the Air Mass (AM). AM=1/sin(ys)

66) What is the solar altitude? How can you calculate the AM when knowing the solar
altitude?
The solar altitude is the angle between the horizon and the center of the sun,
measured in degrees. AM = 1 / sin( solar altitude )
67) Which parameters do you need in order to calculate the local solar time (LocalSolarTiime)?
Longitude , time zone ( UTS coordinated universal time ) , date , local standard time
 Lecture 6, 7 & 8: Fundamentals & loss mechanisms

68) Calculate the Reflectance for a silicon wafer, assuming a refractive index nSi=4 as
compared to a perovskite layer with a refractive index n perovskite=2 . The refractive index
of air nair = 1
By using Fresnel Equations: For silicon:
𝑛2 − 𝑛1 2 4− 1 2
𝑅=( ) =( ) = 0.36
𝑛2 + 𝑛1 4+ 1
For perovskite:
𝑛2 − 𝑛1 2 2− 1 2
𝑅=( ) =( ) = 0.11
𝑛2 + 𝑛1 2+ 1

69) Which recombination processes do you know. Classify them according to the order in
carrier density. Radiative combination ( high carrier density ) , non radiative
recombination auger ( 2order density ) , non radiative recombination via straps ( 3 rd oder
density).
70) Draw the band diagram for a first order recombination mechanism? Is this a loss
mechanism? Is this process radiative or non-radiative?
the first-order recombination process is a radiative loss mechanism because it
leads to the loss of current or voltage due to the emission of photons.

71) Draw the band diagram for a second order recombination mechanism. Is this a loss
mechanism? Is this process (typically, e.g. for direct bandgap semiconductors) radiative
or non-radiative?
the band diagram for second-order recombination shows the electron and hole
positions in a semiconductor material, where they can recombine and transfer
their energy to another carrier through a scattering process. This process is a non-
radiative loss mechanism.
72) Which fundamental loss mechanisms can you name for photovoltaic operation that
reduce energy conversion efficiency from 100 % down to the level of the detailed
balance limit? Power losses below bang gap , power losses due to thermalization ,
power losses due to black body emissions.
73) What is the detailed balance limit? What are the basic assumptions behind the detailed
balance limit.
The detailed balance limit is the theoretical maximum efficiency that a solar cell can
achieve, based on the laws of thermodynamics and the properties of the materials
used in the device. It is also known as the Shockley-Queisser limit, limitations : when a
system is in equilibrium any process occurs with the same frequency as the reverse
process.
74) Draw schematically the efficiency curve of semiconductors for PV operation as a
function of bandgap. At which values of the bandgap do we observe the maximum
efficiency? What is app. the maximum efficiency in the detailed balance limit? 1,2 –
1,4 ev EFFICIENCY MAX 30%

75) Describe the phenomena of thermalization in a semiconductor after light absorption? Why
does that process reduce the maximum efficiency for solar cell operation? Does that
mechanism depend on the bandgap? Does that mechanism dominantly affect Voc or Jsc?
After light is absorbed in a semiconductor, the energy of the absorbed photons is transferred
to electrons in the valence band, creating electron-hole pairs. These electrons and holes have
high kinetic energy, which can be quickly lost through collisions with other electrons and
lattice vibrations (phonons). During thermalization, the excited carriers lose energy and are
effectively cooled down to the temperature of the lattice. As a result, the excess energy that
was initially available for the generation of electricity is dissipated as heat. This process
reduces the maximum efficiency of a solar cell because it effectively reduces the amount of
energy available for conversion to electricity. Yes depends on the bandgap and both affects
Voc and Jsc.
76) Describe the phenomena of sub-bandgap absorption losses for semiconductor? Whydoes
that process reduce the maximum efficiency for solar cell operation? Does that mechanism
depend on the bandgap? Does that mechanism dominantly affect Voc or Jsc?
Sub-bandgap absorption losses occur when photons with energies lower than the bandgap
energy of a semiconductor material are absorbed. These photons do not have enough
energy to create electron-hole pairs, but they can still be absorbed by defects in the
material, such as impurities, dislocations, or surface states. This absorption can result in
the generation of free carriers or the emission of phonons, which can reduce the efficiency
of the solar cell. the sub-bandgap absorption losses have a greater impact on the maximum
efficiency of solar cells based on materials with smaller bandgap energies.affects both
Voc and Jsc.
77) Which concepts do you know to overcome the detailed balance limit for single
junction solar cells. Name at least two mechanisms and briefly explain, how they
manage to go beyond the DB single junction limit.
the detailed balance limit (DB) represents the theoretical limit for single-junction solar
cells, which is determined by the balance between the absorption of photons and the
emission of carriers (electrons and holes) through recombination processes. However,
there are two mechanisms that can be used to overcome this limit:
1. Tandem solar cells: Tandem solar cells consist of multiple layers of solar cells
 with different bandgaps stacked on top of each other. The layers are designed to
absorb different parts of the solar spectrum, allowing for a more efficient use of
sunlight. By using multiple junctions, tandem solar cells can increase the
theoretical efficiency beyond the DB limit for a single junction solar cell.
2. Hot Carrier Solar Cells: Hot carrier solar cells (HCSCs) are a type of solar cell
that utilizes a different approach to overcome the DB limit. HCSCs operate by
extracting carriers with excess energy that would otherwise be lost through
thermalization. This is achieved by minimizing energy losses through phonon
emissions or scattering, allowing the carriers to maintain a high energy level. This
approach can lead to efficiencies beyond the DB limit for single-junction solar
cells.

78) systems are the closest to the DB limit at their bandgaps of 1.45 eV and 1.1 eV?
a. 80 - 90 %
b. 60 – 70 %
c. 40 – 50 %
79) Draw the 1d band diagram of a p-n junction before and after formation of the contact. Start
with the n-doped SC on the left-hand side.
a. Label the various potentials (VB, CB, Ef, vacuum level)
b. Indicate where the space charge (depletion) regime lies
c. Draw the built-in potential (Vbi)

80) Explain J0 in the band diagram of a p-n Junction. Which parameters are dominating J0 ?
Indicate whether J0 is increasing when increasing the parameters.
a. Bandgap
b. Temperature of the semiconductor
c. Doping
J0 in the band diagram of a p-n junction is the reverse saturation current density, and its value is
influenced by the temperature, doping concentration, and the width of the depletion region.
Among these parameters, temperature and doping concentration have a dominant effect on J0,
with an increase in either parameter leading to an increase in J0.
81) Draw a Shottky contact for a highly n-type silicon wafer. Label the potentials.
Explicitly mention the work function of the metal that has to be used to create a
Shottky type junction.

82) Draw a Shottky contact for a highly p-type silicon wafer. Label the potentials.
Explicitly mention the work function of the metal that has to be used to create a
Shottky type junction.

83) Write down the diode equation for a Shottky type junction. Explain J0 for a Shottky type
junction. Which parameters are controlling the size of J0 in a Shottky junction?

84) Draw a Type 1 heterojunction for two intrinsic semiconductors. Label the VB, CB, both
bandgaps and the energy offset in the bands. Do you know other names for Type1 HJ?

85) Draw a Type 2 heterojunction for two intrinsic semiconductors. Label the VB, CB, both
bandgaps and the energy offset in the bands. Do you know other names for Type 2 HJ?
86) Draw a Broken Gap heterojunction. Label the VB, CB, both bandgaps and the energyoffset
in the band.
Lecture 9: Silicon Photovoltaics

87) Is silicon a direct or indirect semiconductor. Draw the 1d band diagram (E, k), label
the potentials (VB, CB) and show the lowest Eg.
Silicon is an indirect semiconductor, meaning that it has a minimum energy point
in the conduction band at a different k-point than the maximum energy point in
the valence band.

88) Draw schematically the absorption coefficient in [cm-1] of Silicon versus a direct
bandgap semiconductor.

89) Explain the term “Charge Generation Rate” for a (silicon) solar cell. Is the Generation
Rate related to the absorption rate? Argue why these two rates are related to each other!
it represents the number of electron-hole pairs generated per unit volume per unit
time. the generation rate and absorption rate are related to each other through the
material's quantum efficiency. The higher the quantum efficiency, the higher the
fraction of absorbed photons that generate electron-hole pairs, leading to a higher
charge generation rate.

90) Describe the process to generate metallurgical silicon from SiO2 (quartz)
91) Describe the process to purify silicon (TCS process). Distinguish between formation
of TCS and the purification process
The process starts by exposing the powders of metallurgical Si to HCl gas in a sinter oven as
shown in the following exothermal reaction:
Si + HCl > SiHCl3 +H2
The product is passed into a fractionated distillation column to separate the products and
impurities. The final product impurities are less than 10-12

92) Describe the Siemens process. What is the input material used and what are the
properties of the material coming out from the Siemens process (purity, form, …)

93) Describe a process to grow silicon single crystalline material

- Polycrystalline material is melted (Tm = 1415 °C).
- Si single crystal is immersed into melt.
- Formation of Si single crystals around nucleus.
- Addition of highly doped Si yields desired doping level.
- Unavoidable: doping by oxygen (causes radiative recombination)

94) Describe a process to grow silicon poly-crystalline ingots.

- Molten Si is poured into graphite crucibles.

- Controlled cooling yields columnar structures.
- Sawing of columns in rectangular wafers
95) Describe the processes to form a standard p-n junction Si solar cell, starting from
wafers directly after sawing.
Wafer with sawing damage, b. cleaning and etching of sawing damage, c. diffusion, d. plasma
etching of cell edges, e. etching of phosphor glass, f. screen printing alloy contact, g. drying,
h. screen printing back side metal, i. sintering of back side metallization, j. screen printing
front contacts, k. drying, l. screen printing ARC, m. sintering front contact and ARC.

96) Which processes do you know for doping silicon? Name the two leading processes.
Which of them are industrially relevant, which of them are rather academic.
Ion implementation ( industrial ) and diffusion ( academic )
97) What are the consequences of doping of a semiconductor? Doping of a semiconductor
with donors increases the concentration of electrons. Why does this reduce the hole
concentration in the dark?
Doping a semiconductor with impurity atoms can modify its electrical properties by
introducing new energy levels within the band gap. In particular, doping can introduce either
free electrons or holes into the crystal lattice, which can significantly affect its electrical
conductivity.When a semiconductor is doped with donors, the additional electrons occupy
some of the available hole states within the valence band. This reduces the concentration of
holes in the material

98) Which processes do you know to form the front-side / back-side contacts. Which
materials are used for that? Front side : screen pinting , thin film deposition , laser ablation.
backside contacts: thin film deposition , diffusion , electrodeposition. The materials used for
front-side contacts are typically metals like silver, aluminum, or copper. The back-side
contacts can be made from similar metals The choice of materials and process for the
contacts depends on factors like efficiency, cost, and durability.

98) How can you overcome rear surface recombination losses. Explain the interplay of
backside passivation and wafer diffusion length by schematically drawing the
collection probability as a function of distance from the front surface.
It’s with backside passivation. The interplay between backside passivation and
wafer diffusion length can be understood by looking at the collection
probability as a function of distance from the front surface
100) Discuss the impact of recombination losses on the External Quantum
Efficiency (EQE).
a. Is backside recombination rather observed in the blue part of the EQE or in
thered part of the EQE
b. Is frontside recombination rather observed in the blue part of the EQE or in
the red part of the EQE
Recombination losses in a solar cell can have a significant impact on its External Quantum
Efficiency (EQE). EQE is the fraction of incident photons that are converted to electron-hole
pairs and collected as photocurrent by the solar cell. Recombination losses reduce the number
of carriers that contribute to the photocurrent, leading to a decrease in EQE.

101) Which strategies do you know to reduce interface / surface recombinationlosses for silicon solar
cells. Name and explain at least one. Passivation layer; example is the use of hydrogen passivation,
where a hydrogen plasma is used to saturate surface bonds with hydrogen atoms, creating a
hydrogenated surface layer that reduces recombination losses

102) What is a back surface field? Draw the band diagram, indicate the back surface field
regime and label which type of carriers are influenced how.
A back surface field (BSF) is a type of doping profile that is commonly used in
silicon solar cells to reduce recombination losses at the rear surface of the cell.

103) Explain surface recombination at the hand of a schematic band diagram,

showing explicitly the surface states and the involved processes.
How can you reduce / overcome surface / interface recombination?
Surface recombination occurs when charge carriers (electrons or holes)
recombine at the surface of a semiconductor, leading to a loss of efficiency in
the solar cell. This can happen due to the presence of surface states, which
are energy levels located at or near the surface of the semiconductor that can
trap charge carriers and promote recombination.
One way to reduce surface recombination is by passivating the surface with a
thin layer of insulating material, such as silicon dioxide (SiO2) or aluminum
oxide (Al2O3) Another way to reduce surface recombination is by using
texturing techniques to increase the surface area of the solar cell and reduce
the probability of charge carriers reaching the surface
104) How do you passivate the surface / interface states of a silicon solar cell. Which
materials can be used, which processes are used to deposit these materials?
passivation of surface and interface states of a silicon solar cell can be achieved
by depositing a thin layer of material on the surface of the cell using different
deposition methods such as thermal oxidation, CVD, PECVD, ALD, and ALD-
ACE. Materials such as SiO2, Al2O3, Si3N4, TiO2, and a-Si can be used for
passivation.

105) Which strategies do you know to reduce reflection losses at the front surface of a
silicon solar cell? Name at least 2
In conclusion, reducing reflection losses at the front surface of a silicon solar cell can be
achieved through strategies such as applying anti-reflection coatings and texturing the
surface. These strategies can significantly improve the performance and efficiency of the cell.

a. How do you design and optimize a V-shape antireflection layer? Which

relation between the refractive index, the central wavelength and the
thicknessof the AR layer must be obeyed
b. Schematically draw a pyramid-type AR layer and indicate the path of
incident light incl. the multiple reflections and the prolonged light path
To design and optimize a V-shape antireflection layer, the refractive index
of the material and the central wavelength of the incident light must be
taken into account. The thickness of the layer is then determined based on
the desired reduction in reflection losses.
A pyramid-type antireflection layer is shown in the schematic below. The
incident light is shown as the red arrow, and the multiple reflections in the
pyramid structure are indicated by the blue arrows. As the light enters the
pyramid, it is refracted and reflected multiple times, leading to a
prolonged path length and a reduced reflection.
106) What are the optimization criteria for the bus bars and the collection grid on the front
surface of a Si cell. What happen if you make them infinitesimal small. What happens if
they become too broad? Can you schematically draw the solar cell losses in [%] as a function
of number of collection fingers for two different widths of the finger (small / large)
The bus bars and the collection grid on the front surface of a silicon solar cell serve as
the electrical contacts to extract the generated current from the cell. The
optimization criteria for these components include: Minimizing shading losses,
Minimizing series resistance losses.
If the bus bars and collection grid become infinitesimally small, the series resistance
losses may increase, leading to a reduction in the overall cell performance. On the
other hand, if the bus bars and collection grid become too broad, the shading
losses may increase, leading to a reduction in the amount of light that can be
absorbed by the cell.
Overall, the design of the bus bars and collection grid on the front surface of a silicon
solar cell should balance the trade-off between shading losses and series resistance
losses to optimize the overall cell performance.

107) Draw the schematics of an IBC cell. Explain the advantages of this concept as
compared to a BSF silicon cell

Interdigitated back electrodes: no shading - Both surfaces

passivated by SiO2 – only point contacts at rear side
Requires high quality Si for high Ln.

108) Draw the schematics of a PERC cell. Explain the advantages of this concept as
compared to a BSF silicon cell

Excellent light trapping –

Both surfaces passivated selectively for p-type and n-type – only point contacts at rear side
109) Explain the concept of a bifacial cell. Which light can be collected with a bifacial
cell that otherwise would be lost in a regular BSF silicon solar cell.
A bifacial solar cell is a type of solar cell that can generate electricity from light that
strikes both the front and back surfaces of the cell. Unlike a regular back surface field
(BSF) silicon solar cell, which only captures light from the front surface, a bifacial cell
is designed to capture light from both sides of the cell.

110) Draw the schematics of a HIT cell. Indicate the hetoerjunctions (HJ) formed in a HIT
cell.
c. Is a HIT cell based on a p/n junction?

111) How are cells interconnected in a module

a.Serial In this method, cells are connected in a series, with the positive contact
of one cell connected to the negative contact of the adjacent cell
b.Parallel cells are connected in parallel, with the positive contacts of all cells
connected to a common positive bus bar, and the negative contacts of all cells connected to
a common negative bus bar
c.Each with two separate contacts each cell has two separate contacts, one on
the front surface and one on the back surface, and is connected to a separate bus bar

112) What is the difference between a framed and a frame less module. What are thepros
and cons for these two different architectures?
the main difference between a framed and a frameless solar module is the
presence or absence of an aluminum or steel frame around the edges of the
module.

The pros and cons of each architecture can depend on the specific application and preferences
of the user. Some potential pros of framed modules include their increased durability and
protection of the cells, as well as the availability of standard mounting options However,
frameless modules may also be more expensive to manufacture and more susceptible to
mechanical damage.

113) Explain the principle of a backdiode: A back diode is a type of bypass diode that is
connected in reverse bias across a solar cell or group of solar cells
a. How is it connected to the Si module A back diode is typically connected
in parallel with a group of cells within a solar module, with the cathode of
the diode connected to the positive terminal of the module and the anode
 connected to the negative terminal
b. How many back diodes do you suggest to use in 60 cell module ( 6 x 10)?
The number of back diodes needed in a 60 cell module depends on the
specific design and shading conditions of the module. As a general rule, it is
recommended to use one back diode per 15 to 20 cells, so a 60 cell module
could have between 3 and 4 back diodes

114) What happens if you shade one full cell in a 60 cell module with all cells
interconnected in series and no backdiode. To which level is the nominal power output for
that particular module reduced? If one full cell in a 60 cell module is shaded and all cells are
interconnected in series without a back diode, the power output of the entire module will
be reduced to the level of the shaded cell.
a. 1.6%
b. 10 %
c. 16%
d. 50 %
e. 100 %

Lecture 10: Perovskite Photovoltaics

115) Are Halide Perovskites direct bandgap or indirect bandgap semiconductors?

Halide perovskites are direct bandgap semiconductors, which means that
they can efficiently convert light into electricity.
116) What is the bandgap of the prototype semiconductor MAPbI3? The prototype halide
perovskite semiconductor MAPbI3 has a bandgap of around 1.5 electronvolts (eV), which is
ideal for absorbing visible light and enabling efficient solar energy conversion
117) What does the term perovskite refer to :
a. A crystal structure
b. Is derived from the name “Perowski”
c. A solar cell type
d. A piezoelectric transducer

118) What interface materials have to be used for a p-i-n architecture? List at least two
materials that can be used for the p-type layer and the n-type layer.
P type : doped hydrogenated amorphous silicon ( a-Si:H) and doped
polycristaline silicon (poly Si ). N type : doped hydrogenated amorphous silicon (
a-Si:H) and doped cristaline silicon (C Si ).
119) What interface materials have to be used for a n-i-p architecture? List at least two
materials that can be used for the p-type layer and the n-type layer. N118 other way
around.
120) Halide Perovskite cells have been processed in a “mesoporous” structure. What
specifically is the characteristics of a mesoporous structure? Why are the presumable
advantages of that architecture?
in a mesoporous structure, the perovskite layer is formed on a scaffold of mesoporous metal
oxide nanoparticles, such as titanium dioxide (TiO2) or zinc oxide (ZnO). The mesoporous
structure has pores in the range of 2-50 nm, which provides a large surface area for the
perovskite layer to adhere to, and allows for better charge transport.Advantages :high surface
area , enhance light trapping , improved charge transport , versatility.

121) Write down the generic structure formula (ABX3). Give the valence value for each of
the elements and list as least two candidates for each element (molecule)
A[X1-X2]3
where A is a monovalent or divalent cation, B is a divalent or trivalent cation, and X is a
halogen anion.

122) List different methods to tune the bandgap of halide perovskites.

There are several methods to tune the bandgap of halide perovskites: Alloying with different
halide ions, Changing the size of the A cation, Substitution of the B cation.
a.Over which range [eV] can you tune the bandgap by varying the halide ion1.2-2.3 eV
b.Over which range [eV] can you tune the bandgap by varying the B cation1.5-2.8 eV
c.Over which range [eV] can you tune the bandgap by varying A cationup to ~0.4 eV
123) Which information contains the Goldschmidt tolerance factor for halide perovskites? If
the Goldschmidt tolerance factor lies in the following regime, does it provide a stable
semiconducting perovskite that can be used for photovoltaics?
The Goldschmidt tolerance factor (t) provides information about the stability of a
perovskite crystal structure by describing the degree of distortion from an ideal cubic
perovskite structure. It is defined as: t = (r_A + r_X) / sqrt(2) * (r_B + r_X)

f the Goldschmidt tolerance factor lies in the range of 0.8 < t < 1, it suggests that
the perovskite crystal structure is stable and that it can be used for photovoltaic
applications. Therefore, option c is the correct answer.
a. 0.6< t< 0.8
b. 0.72 < t < 0.91
c. 0.8 < t < 1
d. 0.91 < t < 1.1

124) Which material specific information do you need in order to calculate the
Goldschmidt tolerance factor?
in order to calculate the Goldschmidt tolerance factor, you need the ionic
radii of the A, B, and X ions in the crystal structure of the material.

125) Which concepts do you know for lead-free halide perovskite semiconductors? Is
Cs2AgBiBr6 as well halide perovskite semiconductor? What are the valence valuesof the
two B site metals? What is the specific name for this crystal structure?
Lead-free halide perovskite semiconductors can be categorized into three groups: (1) double
perovskite structures, (2) Ruddlesden-Popper structures, and (3) hybrid inorganic-organic
perovskites.

Cs2AgBiBr6 is also a halide perovskite semiconductor, which belongs to the double

perovskite family. The valence values of the two B site metals (Ag and Bi) are +1 and +3,
respectively. The specific name for this crystal structure is a double perovskite structure or A-
site ordered perovskite.

126) Draw the LaMer diagram for the formation of perovskite particle / crystallite
formation. Indicate the three regimes and label the three different concentrations
representative for each regime.

127) Explain the phenomenon of Ostwald ripening for perovskites? Does that lead to the
growth or smaller or larger crystals?
Ostwald ripening is a process in which small crystals dissolve and re-precipitate onto larger
crystals in a solution. In the context of perovskite solar cells, Ostwald ripening can occur
during the annealing process when the perovskite film is heated to a high temperature to form
the final crystal structure.

During annealing, small perovskite crystals can dissolve and then re-precipitate onto larger
crystals, resulting in the growth of larger crystals at the expense of smaller ones. This can
have important consequences for the properties of the perovskite film, as the crystal size and
distribution can affect the efficiency and stability of the resulting solar cell. In general, larger
and more uniform crystals are desired for optimal device performance.

128) What happens if you do not stop nucleation. Will you get fewer but bigger crystals
or a larger number of smaller crystals. Which one would be better for photovoltaics.
if nucleation is not stopped, a larger number of smaller crystals will form rather than a
smaller number of larger crystals. This is because nucleation continues as long as there are
available precursors to form new nuclei, and the newly formed nuclei will continue to grow
until they collide and merge with each other.

For photovoltaics, it is generally better to have larger crystals as they tend to have fewer
defects and longer carrier lifetimes, which can lead to higher device efficiencies. However,
the crystal size should also be optimized for efficient charge transport and extraction, so there
is a balance to be struck between crystal size and device performance.
129) How can you control nucleation, e.g. quench nucleation. Mention at least three
methods to quench nucleation during film formation : Using a high boiling point solvent
,Using a two-step method, Adding a nucleation inhibitor.

130) Perovskite are known to be defect tolerant. What does defect tolerant mean? Does a
defect tolerant semiconductor have defect states in the bandgap? Or does defect tolerance
mean that first order recombination processes are negligible despite the presence of
defects?
Defect tolerance in a semiconductor material means that the presence of defects
(e.g. vacancies, impurities, etc.) does not significantly degrade its electronic
properties, especially the charge carrier recombination rate.
Defect-tolerant semiconductors do have defect states within the bandgap, but
these defects are energetically shallow, meaning they do not significantly trap
charge carriers or perturb the energy levels in the bandgap
131) What type of diode principle / junction principle is used for perovskite solar cells?
Select the right junction and identify which materials are responsible for forming that
junction for a p-i-n (n-i-p architecture)
The p-i-n (n-i-p) architecture in perovskite solar cells uses a p-n type junction. In this
architecture, the p-type and n-type layers form a junction with the intrinsic layer in
between. The p-type layer is typically made of a hole-transporting material, such as
spiro-OMeTAD, while the n-type layer is typically made of an electron-transporting
material, such as PCBM or TiO2. The intrinsic layer is made of the perovskite material
itself;
d. Shottky Junction
e. p-n type junction
f. Heterojunction

132) What are typical lab methods to form a perovskite film. Mention at least two of them
and describe their advantages and disadvantages:
Spin-coating: The advantages of spin-coating are that it is a relatively simple and fast
method, and it can produce high-quality films with good reproducibility. However, spin-
coating is limited to small areas and can be challenging to scale up for large-area
applications
Vapor deposition: The advantages of vapor deposition are that it can be used to deposit
films over large areas and can produce films with high crystallinity and purity. However,
vapor deposition requires sophisticated equipment and can be a slow and costly process.
133) What is a scalable production method with industrial relevance for perovskites?
A scalable production method with industrial relevance for perovskites is the
slot-die coating method. This method allows for continuous and precise
coating of perovskite layers on large-area substrates, making it suitable for
mass production of perovskite solar cells. Slot-die coating can be used to
deposit uniform and high-quality perovskite films with good reproducibility,
making it a promising method for large-scale manufacturing of perovskite
solar cells.

134) Describe the advantages / disadvantages of slot-die coating for the formation of
photovoltaic perovskite layers
Advantages: High Throughput, Uniformity, High Yield, Reduced toxicity.
Disadvantages: Equipment Cost, Precursor solutions, Difficulty of Use.

135) Draw the schematic cross section of a perovskite module with at least two subcells.
Label the positive and negative poles of each electrode. Explain whether youuse a serial or
parallel interconnect?
136) Which concepts are reported for silicon – perovskite tandem cells, that are
differentiated by the number of terminals?
Silicon-perovskite tandem cells can be classified into two types based on the
number of terminals they have: Two-terminal tandem cells 1, Four-terminal
tandem cells more than 2.
137) What is the advantage and disadvantage of a 2T versus a 4T silicon –
perovskite tandem cell?
The advantage of a 2T tandem cell is its simpler design and lower cost. It
requires fewer interconnecting layers and electrical contacts, which reduces
the complexity and cost of fabrication. However, in a 2T tandem cell, both
cells are subject to the same current and voltage, which can lead to current
mismatches and loss of efficiency.
In contrast, a 4T tandem cell has a higher efficiency potential because each
cell operates independently and can be optimized separately. This allows for
greater flexibility in cell design and material selection. However, the
 increased complexity of fabrication and additional interconnecting layers can
increase the cost of the cell.

Lecture 11: Organic Photovoltaics

138) Plot schematically the resolution of a wafer based solar cell production vs the one for a
printing-based production technology as a function of productivity. Label the axes and
denote the units of the axes.

139) What is an exciton? Give an estimate for the exciton binding energy.
An exciton is a bound state of an electron and a hole created when a photon is absorbed by a
semiconductor material, the binding energy can be as high as several hundred meV or even
over 1 eV.

140) Can you make a solar cell from a purely excitonic semiconductor?
It is not currently possible to make a solar cell from a purely excitonic semiconductor. This is
because excitons are neutral particles and do not directly generate a photocurrent

141) How do you split the exciton in organic semiconductor. Explain the concept of a
“donor – acceptor” blend for charge generation with excitonic semiconductors.
in organic semiconductors, excitons can be split into free charges (electrons and holes) by a
process called exciton dissociation. This process typically occurs at a heterojunction
between two materials with different electron affinities, referred to as a donor and an
acceptor. A donor-acceptor blend is a type of material system that is designed to facilitate
exciton dissociation and charge generation in organic solar cells. In this material system, a
donor material is blended with an acceptor material to form a bulk heterojunction. The
donor and acceptor materials are carefully chosen to have complementary energy levels
and a suitable morphology to facilitate efficient exciton dissociation.

142) How fast can the photoinduced charge transfer from an excited donor to an
acceptor occur
g. In a few fs
h. In a few ps
i. Takes some 100 ps
j. In the ns regime

143) What is the quantum efficiency for a process like photoinduced charge
generation in organic D-A blends that is occurring within femtoseconds?
a. 100 %
b. About 50 %
c. In the 10 % regime
d. In the 1 % regime
e. Less than 1 %
144) What are four essential steps for photovoltaic operation in a BHJ composite,
necessary to extract free charges at the interface
Light absorption , exciton dissociation , charge transport , charge collection.

145) Explain the schematics of the Scharber Plot for a fixed acceptor (e.g. fullerene) and for
polymers with different bandgap values and different LUMO levels.
The Scharber plot allows researchers to compare the performance of different donor
polymers with varying bandgap values and LUMO levels and to identify the optimal energy
offset for a given acceptor material. By selecting donor polymers with optimal energy
offsets, researchers can design more efficient organic solar cells.

146) How can you predict the Voc of a BHJ cell when you know Voc = (kBT/q) ln(Jsc/J0 + 1)
a. The HOMO of the donor and the LUMO of the acceptor
Voc = (HOMO_donor - LUMO_acceptor - E_loss) / q
b. The HOMO of the donor, the HOMO of the acceptor and the bandgap of
theacceptor
Voc = (HOMO_donor - HOMO_acceptor - E_gap_acceptor - E_loss) / q

147) The bulk heterojunction concept is a diode principle for charge generation.
However, charge extraction requires a selective interface. What type of junctions is
typically used for organic solar cells
 c. P-n type junction
d. Shottky type junction
e. Heterojunction

148) Explain the concept of Fermilevel pinning at the hand of a fullerene based BHJ?
In the situation of strict Fermi level pinning – how does Voc change when changing
the work function of the contact metal?
In fullerene-based BHJ solar cells, Fermi level pinning can occur at the interface
between the metal electrode and the organic active layer, due to the presence of
surface states or impurities.
In the situation of strict Fermi level pinning,the Voc of the BHJ solar cell will remain
the same, as long as the Fermi level pinning condition is maintained

149) Draw the cross section of an OPV module with at least two sub-cells. Denote the
positive and negative electrodes. Highlight whether the cells are interconnected in series or
in parallel.

150) Name at least two printing / coating technologies that can be used for the industrial
manufacturing of OPV. What are the advantages / disadvantages of those
Roll-to-roll (R2R) printing/coating
 Advantages: High throughput, low cost, suitable for large-scale production.
 Disadvantages: Non-uniformity, poor registration accuracy, limited resolution.
Inkjet printing:
 Advantages: High-resolution patterning, precise control, suitable for small-scale
or custom-designed OPV.
 Disadvantages: Limited throughput, clogging of nozzles, high cost per unit area.