Soil Mechanics &

Foundation Engineering
(Course Code – DCE-501)
Unit 1 B
10th August 2020
Mohammad Shahid Akhtar
Associate Professor
University Polytechnic
Jamia Millia Islamia
 Index Properties of Soil

• Index properties help us to identify and classify the soils

• Although Geo-technical engineers are more interested to know the engineering
properties of soils e.g.
• Shear Strength
• Permeability
• Compressibility
• Index properties are studied under two heads:
• Soil grain properties i.e. properties of individual grains
• Soil aggregate properties i.e. properties of soil mass as a whole
 Soil may be broadly classified under two categories

Coarse Grained Soil (particle size > 75 μ) Fine Grained Soil (particle size < 75 μ)

Sand Gravel Silt Clay

• For Coarse grained soils

• Grain Size Distribution
• Relative Density ‘Dr’ - aggregate properties of cohesionless soils
• For Fine grained soils
• Atterberg’s limits are very important

Sieve Analysis done for Coarse grained soil

Particle Size distribution is carried out by

Sedimentation Test (Hydrometer Test)
Wet analysis for fine grained soil
 Particle Size Analysis

S.No. Sieve Size Wt. of % wt. Cummulative %

soil retained % retained finer
retained
1 4.75 mm

2 2.00 mm

3 1.00 mm

4 600 μ

5 425 μ

6 300 μ

7 212 μ

8 150 μ

9 75 μ

10 Pan

Plot the result on a semi-log graph

 Grading Curve
To obtain the grading characteristics, three points are
located first on the grading curve.

D60 = size at 60% finer by weight

D30 = size at 30% finer by weight
D10 = size at 10% finer by weight

The grading characteristics are then determined as follows:

D10 = Effective Size. As this size control the permeability of the soil

For GW For SW

Cu > 4 Cu > 6
Uniformity Coefficient

Curvature Coefficient 1 < Cc < 3 1 < Cc < 3

 Relative Density

• The geotechnical characteristics of granular soils can vary in a wide range

depending upon how densely the grains are packed.
• The density of packing is quantified through a simple parameter called
Relative Density (Dr) or Density Index (ID)
• Dr or ID is determined using the following formula

emax _ e Where, Dr = relative density expressed in percentage

e = void ratio of the soil
Dr = _e x 100 emax = void ratio of the soil in the loosest state
emax min emin = void ratio of the soil in the densest state
 Relative Density

• Granular soils are qualitatively described according to their relative densities

as shown below

Relative Density % Dr Description of Soil Deposit

0-15 Very Loose
15-35 Loose
35-65 Medium Dense
65-85 Dense
85-100 Very Dense
 Atterberg’s Limit (1911 Swedish Engineer)
• The consistency of a fine-grained soil changes
with the change in its water content.
• A gradual increase in water content causes the

Vol. of Soil
soil to change from solid to semi- Semi Solid Plastic State Liquid State
Solid State
solid to plastic to liquid states. State

• The water contents at which the consistency S.L P.L L.L

changes from one state to the other are Water Content (w in %)
called consistency limits (or Atterberg limits).
• The difference between the liquid limit and the
• The three limits are known as: plastic limit is known as the plasticity index (IP)
• Shrinkage limit (S.L) • The plasticity of a soil is its ability to undergo
deformation without cracking
• Plastic limit (P.L) - change of consistency from • Presence of clay materials provide characteristics
brittle/crumbly to plastic state of plasticity in the soil.
• Liquid limit (L.L) - change of consistency from • Montmorillonite
plastic to liquid state • Illite
• Kaolinite
Apparatus used for determining
Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit and
Shrinkage Limit
 Atterberg’s Limit Test
Apparatus
Liquid limit test: (IS Code : 2720 Part 5)
Take 120g of Soil passing through Sieve 425μ

• Casagrande Liquid Limit apparatus consists of a

brass cup and a hard rubber base, the brass cup
can be lifted up by crank-operated cam.
• A soil paste is placed in the brass cup and a
groove is cut at the center of the soil pat using a
standard grooving tool.
• The cup is then repeatedly dropped from a
height of 10mm by operating the crank until the
groove closes by 12.7 mm (half inch). The
number of corresponding blows ‘N’ required is
recorded.
• The soil is then removed and its moisture
content is determined.
• The soil is said to be at its liquid limit when
exactly 25 drops are required to close the
groove for a distance of 12.7 mm
 Determination of Liquid Limit of Soil
Flow Index, IF - Is the slope of flow curve obtained by plotting water content as ordinate on natural scale
against number of blows as abscissa on logarithmic scale
The flow index indicates the rate of loss in shearing strength upon increase in water content

w1
42
w2

Where;
w1 = water content corresponding to number of blows N1
w2 = water content corresponding to number of blows N2.

Shear Strength at Liquid Limit is about 2.7 kN/m2 N1 N2

(27g/cm2)
Flow curve for determination of Liquid Limit

CC = 0.009 (LL – 10) for undisturbed soil

CC = 0.007 (LL – 10) for remoulded soil } (S <= 4)
f
 Atterberg’s Limit Test
Apparatus
Plastic limit test:

• Take 50 gms of the same soil which has been

used for determining Liquid Limit
• Roll into threads until it becomes thinner and
eventually breaks at 3 mm. Rolling on a smooth plate

• it is defined as the moisture content in percent

at which the soil crumbles when rolled into the
threads of 3.0 mm.
• If it is wet, it breaks at a smaller diameter; if it
is dry it breaks at a larger diameter.
Rolling on between palms of hands

Soil thread 3mm diameter just crumbles

 Toughness Index, It – defined as the ratio of Plasticity Index (Ip) to Flow Index (If)
It is the measure of the shear strength of the soil at the plastic limit

Plasticity Index, Ip = L.L – P.L

Plasticity Index Ip Plasticity Soil

0 Non-Plastic Sand

<7 Low Plastic Silt

7 < Ip < 17 Medium Plastic Silty Clay

Ip > 17 High Plastic Clay

Liquidity Index, IL - Defined as the ratio of natural Type of Soil IL IC

Water Content minus Plastic Limit to Plasticity Index.
Solid <0 >1
Stiff 0-0.25 0.75-1

Plastic Medium Firm 0.25-0.50 0.50-0.75

Consistency Index, IC - Defined as the ratio of Liquid Limit Soft 0.50-0.75 0.25-0.50
minus natural Water Content to the Plasticity Index. Very Soft 0.75-1 0.0-0.25
Liquid >1 <0
 Activity Number
This is used for identifying the swelling potential of clay soil
Plasticity Index
Activity Number, A =
% of Clay fraction

A Type of Soil
< 0.75 Inactive
0.75 < A < 1.25 Normal
> 1.25 Active Ip

A Type of Soil
0.3 - 0.5 Kaolinite
0.5 – 1.0 Illite
1.0 – 7.5 Montmorillonite

% Clay Fraction (< 2 μ)

 Shrinkage Limit
• The shrinkage limit of soil is the water content of the soil when the water is just sufficient to fill all
the pores of the soil and the soil is just saturated.
• The volume of the soil does not decrease when the water content is reduced below the shrinkage
limit.
Shrinkage limit can be determined from the relation

Where
M1= initial wet mass, Ms = dry mass of soil
V1= initial volume V2 = volume after drying.
 Procedure for determination of Shrinkage Limit
IS Code : 2720 Part 6
1. Take a sample of mass about 100g from a thoroughly mixed soil passing 425 micron sieve.
2. Take about 30g of soil sample in a large evaporating dish. Mix it with distilled water to make a
creamy paste which can be readily worked without entrapping the air bubbles.
3. Take the shrinkage dish. Clean it and determine its mass.
4. Fill the mercury in the shrinkage dish. Remove the excess mercury by pressing the plain glass plate
over the top of the shrinkage dish. The plate should be flush with the top of the dish. And no air
should be entrapped.
5. Transfer the mercury of the shrinkage dish to a mercury weighing dish and determine the mass of
the mercury to an accuracy of 0.1g. the volume of the shrinkage dish is equal to the mass of mercury
in grams divided by the specific gravity of the mercury (i.e. 13.6)
6. Coat the inside of the shrinkage dish with a thin layer of silicon grease or Vaseline. Place the soil
specimen in the center of the shrinkage dish equal to about one-third the volume of the shrinkage
dish. Tap the shrinkage dish on a firm cushioned surface and allow the paste to flow to the edges.
7. Add more soil and continue the tapping till the shrinkage dish is completely filled and excess soil
paste projects out about its edge. Strike out the top surface of the plate with a straight edge. Wipe of
all soil adhering to the outside of the shrinkage dish. Determine the mass of the we soil (M1).
 Procedure for determination of Shrinkage Limit
IS Code : 2720 Part 6

8. Dry the soil in the shrinkage dish in air until the colour of the pat turns from dark to light. Then dry
the pat in the oven at 105 to 110 0C to constant mass.
9. Cool the dry pat in a desiccator. Remove the dry pat from the desiccator after cooling, and weight the
shrinkage dish with the dry pat to determine the dry mass of the soil (Ms).
10.Place a glass cup in a large evaporating dish and fill it with mercury. Remove the excess mercury by
pressing the glass plate with prongs firmly over the top of the cup. Wipe off any mercury adhering to
the outside of the cup. Remove the glass cup full of mercury and place it in another evaporating dish
taking care not to spill any mercury from the cup.
11.Take out the dry pat of the soil from the shrinkage dish and immerse it in the glass cup full of
mercury. Take care not to entrap air under the pat. Press the plate with prongs on the top of the cup
firmly.
12.Collect the mercury displaced by the dry pat in the evaporating dish and transfer it to the mercury
weighing dish. Determine the mass of the mercury to an accuracy of 0.1g. The volume of the dry pat
(V2) is equal to the mass of the mercury divided by the specific gravity of the mercury.
13.Repeat the test atleast 3 times.
 Sensitivity of Cohesive Soil

Sensitivity, St - Defined as the ratio of unconfined compressive strength of an undisturbed soil

specimen to its unconfined compressive strength after remoulding

Sensitivity St Soil Type

<= 1.0 Insensitive

(qu) undisturbed 1.0 – 2.0 Little Sensitive

Sensitivity, St = 2.0 – 4.0 Moderately Sensitive
(qu) remoulded
4.0 – 8.0 Sensitive
8 – 16 Extra Sensitive
> 16 Quick Clay
 Plasticity Chart
Given by Casagrande to classify fine grained soils

The 'A' line in this chart is expressed as

IP = 0.73 (WL - 20)
Depending on the point in the chart, fine soils are
divided into clays (C), silts (M), or organic soils (O).

Three divisions of plasticity are also defined as follows.

Plasticity Liquid Limit

Low Plasticity L.L < 35%
Intermediate plasticity 35% < L.L < 50%
High Plasticity L.L > 50%