Metals

Material Testing and
Technology
Dr. Ravindra G Bhardwaj
Ravindra G Bhardwaj 1
Minor Changes!
Characteristic and Technology of
Metals
• Objectives
✓Able to describe tensile and compressive test, type of
machine used to perform the tensile test and what
information can be extracted for metals.
✓Define hardness and able to understand the various
hardness measuring experimental process.
✓Describe the process of fracture of metals.
✓Understand impact test to measure toughness
✓Describe the process of fatigue of metals.
✓Understand the creep test of metals.
Tensile Test
Tensile Test
• The tensile test is used to evaluate the strength and stiffness
of metals and alloys among other prop.
• In this test, a metal sample is pulled to failure in a relatively
short time at a constant rate.
• The mechanical properties of metals and alloys that are of
engineering importance for structural design and can be
obtained from the engineering tensile test are:
1. Modulus of elasticity
2. Yield strength at 0.2% offset
3. Ultimate tensile strength
4. Percent elongation at fracture
5. Percent reduction in area at fracture
6. Modulus of resilience
7. Toughness (static)
Universal Testing Machine
Upper crosshead
Grip
Screw
Columns Middle crosshead
Platen Software controller
https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/WAW-1000D-Hydraulic-Universal-Testing-Machine_60569706565.html
Schematic of UTM
• The force (load) on the specimen
being tested is measured by the
load cell, while the strain is
obtained from the extensometer
attached to the specimen and the
data is collected in a computer-
controlled software package.
• The force data can be converted to

normal engineering stress data,
and a plot of normal engineering
stress versus normal engineering
strain can be constructed.
Standard Tensile Test Specimen
For metals with a thick cross section For metal with thinner cross section
such as plate, a 0.50-in.-diameter such as sheet, a flat specimen is
round specimen is commonly used. used
Tensile Test Standards
• ISO 6892-1: Tensile testing at room temperature
• ISO 6892-2: Tensile testing at elevated temperature
• ISO 6892-3: Tensile testing at low temperature
• ISO 5178: Longitudinal tensile test on weld metal in
fusion welded joints
• ISO 4136: Transverse tensile test of welded joints
• ISO 10164: Determination of the through thickness
properties (Z-quality)
https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:std:iso:6892:-1:ed-3:v1:en
https://www.modiranahan.com/uploads/pdf/ISO-6892-1-2019.pdf
Main types of test pieces
according to product type
Annexure B
• Dimensions of test pieces
• Tolerances on the width of the test piece
Engineering Stress-Strain for high-
strength aluminium alloy (7075-T6)
Comparison of Engineering Stress-
Strain Curves for Selected Alloys
Compressive Test
Compressive Test
• Brittle materials usually reach much higher ultimate
stresses in compression than in tension. Brittle
materials in compression behave elastically up to
certain load, and then fail suddenly by splitting or
by cracking.
Compression Test
• Goal: To determine the behaviour or response of a
material while it experiences a compressive load by
measuring fundamental variables, such as, strain,
stress, and deformation.
• Properties: Compressive strength, yield strength,
ultimate strength, elastic limit, and the elastic
modulus.
• Specimen: Cylinder with a ratio of length to
diameter L/D < 2 to avoid non-axial motion, or the
specimen may be in the form of a cube.
https://www.admet.com/testing-applications/test-types/compression-testing/
ASTM E9 Compression Testing of
Metallic Materials at Room Temperature
• Cylindrical geometries are chosen to minimize the potential
for undesirable buckling.
• The diameter of the specimen should be between 12.7 mm
(0.5 in) to 31.75 mm (1.25 in).
• Heights range from 25.4 mm (1 in) to more than 152.4 mm
(6 in).
• Calculate the average of the cross-sectional area on the
specimen’s gauge section.
• Set the load range of the test machine so that the maximum
expected load is approximately 1/3 of the load range.
• Apply the load at a constant speed rate of 0.005 in/min.
• Collect compressive force and compressive deflection data.
• Calculate the compressive strength, compressive modulus
and the compressive stress-strain curve.
Compression vs Tensile Test
• Strong in compression, due to the fact that the compression test

tends to increase the cross sectional areas of specimens,
preventing necking to occur, and cracks tend to remain closed in
compression.
• Brittle materials fail at much higher compressive stresses than
tensile stresses.
• Ductile materials may have equal tensile and compressive
strengths. Ravindra G Bhardwaj 19
Hardness Test
Hardness
• Hardness is a measure of the resistance of a metal
to permanent (plastic) deformation.
• The hardness of a metal is measured by forcing an
indenter into its surface.
• The hardness of a metal depends on the ease with
which it plastically deforms.
• It is non-destructive test.
• Indenter shape: ball, pyramid, or cone
• Indenter material: hardened steel, tungsten
carbide, or diamond
Rockwell hardness tester
Types of Hardness Tests
Example: 1
• Calculate the Vickers hardness
number of Aluminium alloy 2024.
• Force applied is 10200 gf
• 𝑑1 = 0.5 𝑚𝑚; 𝑑2 = 0.7 𝑚𝑚
https://www.buehler.com/uk/blog/vickers-hardness-testing/#:~:text=The%20Vickers%20hardness%20test%20has,to%20cover%20all%20testing%20requirements.
Fracture of Materials
Fracture of Metals
• Failure may be defined as the inability of a material or a
component to
(1) perform the intended function,
(2) meet performance criteria although it may still be
operational, or
(3) perform safely and reliably even after deterioration.
• Yielding, wear, buckling (elastic instability), corrosion,
and fracture.
• Fracture is the process of the creation of new surfaces
in a component, which eventually leads to separation
of the component, under stress, into two or more parts
Fracture Mechanism
Fracture
Mechanisms
Ductile Brittle Creep Fatigue
• Load beyond • No plastic • Time dependent • Sudden, and

ultimate point deformation failure unexpected failure.
• Applications: • Quick fracture • Constant load for • Cyclic loading or
forging, drawing • Fracture may occur prolonged time repeated stress.
below yield • Creep deformation: • Can occurs below
strength (impact or steam turbines, yield strength.
shock loads) boilers, steam
power plant,
aircrafts, buildings
https://www.tribonet.org/wiki/creep-deformation/
Ductile Fracture
• The ductile fracture of a metal occurs after extensive plastic

deformation and is characterized by slow crack propagation.
1. the specimen forms a neck, and cavities form within the necked region
2. the cavities in the neck coalesce into a crack in the centre of the specimen
and propagate toward the surface of the specimen in a direction
perpendicular to the applied stress
3. when the crack nears the surface, the direction of the crack changes to 45°
to the tensile axis and a cup-and-cone fracture results
Ductile Fracture in Aluminium Alloy
1. Improper design,
including the selection
of materials (under
designing)
2. Improper fabrication
3. Abuse (component is
used at load levels
above that allowed by
the designer)
Brittle Fracture
• Brittle fracture usually proceeds along characteristic

crystallographic planes called cleavage planes and has rapid
crack propagation.
• HCP crystal structure commonly show brittle fracture
because of their limited number of slip planes.
• Many BCC metals such as α iron, molybdenum, and tungsten
also fracture in a brittle manner at low temperatures and
high strain rates.
1. Plastic deformation concentrates dislocations along slip planes at
obstacles.
2. Shear stresses build up in places where dislocations are blocked,
and as a result microcracks are nucleated.
3. Further stress propagates the microcracks, and stored elastic strain
energy may also contribute to the propagation of the cracks.
Case Studies: Brittle Fracture
• Brittle fractures occur because of the Metal alloy

existence of defects in the metal.
• Folds, large inclusions, undesirable
grain flow, poor microstructure,
porosity, tears, and cracks.
• Fatigue cracks, embrittlement due to
the atomic hydrogen and corrosion
damage.
• Certain defects, low operating
temperatures, or high loading rates A snap ring made of 4335 steel
may also cause the brittle fracture of
some moderately ductile materials.
The transition from ductile to brittle
behaviour is called a ductile-to-brittle
transition (DBT).
Impact Test
Toughness
• Dynamic or impact toughness is a measure of the amount of

energy a material can absorb before fracturing under
dynamic loading conditions.
• One of the simplest methods of measuring toughness is to
use an impact testing apparatus.
• Procedure:
➢In the impact test, a heavy pendulum released from a known height
strikes the sample on its downward swing, fracturing it.
➢By knowing the mass of the pendulum and the difference between
its initial and final heights, the energy absorbed by the fracture can
be measured.
• For instance, the toughness of titanium alloys reduces
significantly under the existence of notch, while other
materials such as steel alloys are less sensitive.
Charpy V-notch Impact Test
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tpGhqQvftAo; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9jOWcENlSWs
Impact Testing Apparatus
Impact Test Standards
• ISO 148-1: Impact test of metallic materials

• ISO 9016: Impact test of welded joints
Fracture Test
Fracture Toughness
• Determine the material resistance against the presence of a sharp

crack.
• The crack behaviour of a given component prior to failure will
determine the appropriate fracture toughness parameter: Plane strain
fracture toughness 𝐾𝐼
• Applications
• Off-shore fabrication (wind tower manufacturing, shipbuilding)
• Oil and gas industry (pipe welding)
• Cryogenic applications (iron-nickel alloys)
• LNG tanks (9% Nickel, Nickel base steel)
• Nuclear industry (Stainless steels)
• Aerospace industry (Titanium, Aluminium)
https://makeagif.com/gif/interlaminar-fracture-toughness-test-dcbmode-i-VudUr-
Fracture Modes
• The fracture plane is • Fracture occurs under • Fracture occurs by

perpendicular to the the action of shear shear mode but
normal force. stress and propagates crack propagates
in the direction of perpendicular to
shear the direction of
shear.
Opening Mode Shearing Mode Tearing Mode
http://www2.latech.edu/~dehall/animations/fracture_animations/fracture.html
Stress Intensity Factor
Uniaxial tension on a
metal plate containing an
edge or internal crack
(mode I testing)
KI=stress-intensity factor
σ = applied nominal stress
a = edge-crack length or half
the length of an internal
through crack
Y = dimensionless geometric
constant on the order of 1
Fracture Toughness
• The critical value of the stress-intensity factor that causes

failure of the plate is called the fracture toughness KIC
• Plain strain condition

• Constant value of fracture toughness
• B>>a
• No strain in Z-direction
2
𝐾𝐼𝐶
• 𝐵 = 2.5
𝜎𝑦
Low Little plastic

deformation
Brittle before fracture
Crack Geometry
Thick vs Thin Body
Fracture Toughness Experiment
Fracture Test Standards
• EN ISO 12135 - Determination of quasistatic fracture toughness

• EN ISO 15653 - Determination of quasistatic fracture toughness of
welded joints
• BS 7448-1 - Fracture mechanics toughness tests of metallic materials
• BS 7448-2 - Fracture mechanics toughness tests of welds in metallic
materials
• ASTM E 1290 - Crack-Tip Opening Displacement (CTOD)
• ASTM E 399 - Linear-Elastic Plane-Strain Fracture Toughness KIc of
Metallic Materials
• ASTM E 1820 - Standard Test Method for Measurement of Fracture
Toughness
• ASTM E 647 - Measurement of Fatigue Crack Growth Rates
https://bil-ibs.be/en/fracture-toughness-test
Fracture Toughness Values of Some Materials
Example 2
Fatigue of Metals
Fatigue of Metals
• In many types of service

applications, metal parts
subjected to repetitive or cyclic
stresses will fail due to fatigue
loading at a much lower stress
than that which the part can
withstand under the application
of a single static stress.
• These failures that occur under
repeated or cyclic stressing are
called fatigue failures.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325467396_Finite_Element_Analysis_of_Rail_Vehicle_Suspension_Spring_for_Its_Fatigue_Life_Improvement/figures?lo=1
Fatigue Failure Process
Final rupture
Crack
propagates
Beach marks
or clamshell
Nucleation of
crack under
Origin: Stress cyclic stress
concentration
(sharp edges
or notch)
Fatigue Fracture Case Studies
http://www.ayrtonthemagic.com/pages_eng/ayrtonilpilota/incidente/processo.php
https://yenaengineering.nl/what-is-metal-fatigue/
Origin of the crack located on the surface Fatigue cracks have occurred on the
because of the surface roughness welded tube
https://fatigue-life.com/fatigue-physics/
Rotating Beam Test
Process
Specimen polished and
tapered toward centre
Weight is attached in
R.R. Moore reversed-bending fatigue machine centre of apparatus
Calculate the stress and
number of cycles
Plot SN curve
Fatigue specimen
Fatigue Test
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0hiyMsKENxY
SN Curve for aluminium alloy and steel
• Below the stresses

of the endurance
limit, there is a 50%
probability that the
life of the specimen
is considered
infinite.
• Ferrous alloys:
endurance limit is
about one-half their
tensile strength
• Nonferrous alloys:
fatigue strengths as
low as one-third
their tensile strength
Fatigue Stress vs Cycles Plots
• Kinds of fatigue test methods used in industry and research: axial,

torsional, and flexural stresses
Completely reversed Repeated stress cycle Random stress cycle

stress cycle
Fluctuating Stress Cycle Parameters
High Cycle Fatigue Experiment Setup
• Used to calculate crack growth rate in a material having pre-existing

crack of known length.
Fatigue Crack Growth Rate
da/dN = fatigue crack growth rate,

mm/cycle or in./cycle
ΔK = stress-intensity factor range (ΔK
= Kmax − Kmin),
A, m = constants that are a function
of the material, environment,
frequency, temperature, and stress
1. When the crack length is small, the fatigue ratio
crack growth rate da/dN is also relatively
small.
2. The crack growth rate da/dN increases with
increasing crack length.
3. An increase in cyclic stress σ increases the
For σmin in compression, Kmin = 0
crack growth rate
Fatigue Crack Growth Rate versus Stress-
Intensity Factor Range Plots
ASTM A533 B1 steel
Fatigue Life Calculations
Fatigue Test Standards
• ASTM C1368 Slow Crack Growth of Ceramics in Flexure

• ASTM C394 Shear Fatigue - Sandwich Core Materials
• ASTM D3479 Tension-Tension Fatigue of Polymer Matrix Composite
Materials
• ASTM D7774 Flexural Fatigue Test Equipment for Plastics
• ASTM E2368 Thermomechanical Fatigue Test Equipment
• ASTM E466 Load Controlled Constant Amplitude Fatigue Tests of Metals
• ASTM F1717 Spinal Implant Static and Fatigue Test Equipment
• ASTM F1800 Fatigue Knee Joint Replacement Test Equipment
• ASTM F382 Flexural Fatigue Bone Plate Fixation Devices Test Equipment
• ISO 14801 Fatigue Dental Implants Test Equipment
• ISO 15024 Interlaminar Fracture Toughness of Plastic Composites Test
Machines
• ISO 7206 Hip Implants Tests
https://www.testresources.net/applications/test-types/fatigue-test/
Creep
Creep Deformation
• When a metal or an alloy is under a constant load or
stress, it may undergo progressive plastic
deformation over a period of time. This time-
dependent strain is called creep.
• Creep is a type of metal deformation that occurs at
stresses below the yield strength of a metal,
generally at elevated temperatures.
• Creep causes materials to plastically strain even
though yield stresses have not been reached.
• Applications: nuclear power generation, industrial
engine components, heated metal filaments, jet
engine components, and pressurized high-
temperature piping
The shape of the creep curve depends strongly on the applied
load (stress) and temperature. Higher stresses and higher
Creep Curve temperatures increase the creep rate.
Fracture
Primary dε
Slope =
creep dt
Strain (ε)
Tertiary
creep
Secondary creep
Instantaneous
Elongation (εₒ)
Time (t)
Creep Curve – Primary Curve
• First an instantaneous, rapid elongation of the specimen.

• Following this, the specimen exhibits primary creep in which
the strain rate decreases with time.
• During primary creep the creep rate progressively decreases
with time.
• The metal strain-hardens to support the applied load and
the creep rate decreases with time as further strain
hardening becomes more difficult.
Creep Curve – Secondary Curve
• The creep rate is essentially constant and is therefore also

referred to as steady-state creep.
• The slope of the creep curve in the secondary stage of creep
is referred to as the minimum creep rate.
• The creep resistance of the metal or alloy is the highest.
Creep Curve – Tertiary Curve
• Creep rate rapidly increases with time up to the strain at

fracture.
• The creep rate accelerates due to necking of the specimen
and also to the formation of voids, particularly along grain
boundaries.
A jet engine turbine blade that has undergone creep deformation, causing local
deformation and a multiplicity of intergranular cracks
Effect of stress and temperature on creep curve
Higher temperatures (i.e., above about

0.5TM for the metal) during secondary
creep, recovery processes involving
highly mobile dislocations counteract
the strain hardening so that the metal
continues to elongate (creep) at a
steady-state rate.
Lower temperatures (i.e., below 0.4TM),

metals show primary creep but
negligible secondary creep since the
temperature is too low for diffusional
recovery creep.
The Creep Test
• The effects of temperatures and stress on the creep rate are
determined by the creep test.
• Multiple creep tests are run using different stress levels at constant
temperature or different temperatures at a constant stress, and the
creep curves are plotted.
• The minimum creep rate of the second stage of the creep curve is
measured for each curve
The stress to produce a

minimum creep rate of
10−5 percent/h at a
given temperature is a
common standard for
creep strength.
Example 3
Determine the steady-state creep rate for the copper alloy whose
creep curve is shown
Creep curve for a copper alloy tested at 225°C and 230 MPa
Creep Rupture Test
• Higher loads are applied

• Test is carried out up to failure of the specimen
• Creep-rupture data are plotted as log stress versus log rupture time
316 stainless steel
• Slope changes are caused by factors such as recrystallization,

oxidation, corrosion, or phase changes
IB-CREEP Series - Creep Testing Machine
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k8Py4-SdjyU&ab_channel=IBERTEST
Larsen-Miller Parameter
• Creep–stress rupture data for high-temperature creep-resistant alloys

are often plotted as stress vs Larsen-Miller parameter.
• Larsen-Miller parameter is function of time of rupture and
temperature.
T = temperature, K or °R
tr = stress-rupture time, h
C = constant, usually on the order of 20
In terms of kelvin-hours:
In terms of Rankine-hours:
Nickel Based Alloy Graph
If two of the three
variables of time to
rupture, temperature
stressed at, and stress are
known, then the third
variable that fits the L.M.
parameter can be
determined from log
stress versus L.M.
parameter plots
Example 4
Corrosion Test
Corrosion
• Corrosion may be defined as the deterioration of a material resulting

from chemical attack by its environment.
Factors
Concentration of
Mechanical
Temperature reactants and
stress
products
Corrosion Cell
• Corrosion occurs due to the formation of electrochemical cells.
• For the corrosion reaction to occur five things are necessary.
• If any of these factors are eliminated, galvanic corrosion will not occur.
1. ANODE - Metal or site on the metal where
oxidation occurs (loss of electrons). The anode
has a more negative potential than the
cathode.
2. CATHODE - Metal or site on the metal where
reduction occurs (gain of electrons). The
cathode has a more positive potential than the
anode
3. ELECTROLYTE - Electrically conductive medium
in which the anode and cathode reside.
4. ELECTRICAL CONNECTION - Anode and the
cathode must be externally electrically
connected.
5. POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE - A voltage difference
must exist between the anode and the
cathode. Ravindra G Bhardwaj 79
Electrochemical Process
• Electrochemical processes are spontaneous reactions in
which electrons are transferred from one substance to
another.
• The energy released by such reactions is converted to
electricity.
• These electrochemical processes are also called the redox
reactions or oxidation-reduction reactions
https://www.toppr.com/ask/content/posts/electrochemistry/diagram-set-27893/
Oxidation-Reduction Process
• The zinc dissolves or corrodes in the acid, and zinc chloride

and hydrogen gas are produced as indicated by the chemical
reaction.
• In a simplified ionic form, omitting the chloride ions
Oxidation half-cell Reduction half-cell

reaction reaction
Reaction of hydrochloric
acid with zinc to
produce hydrogen gas
Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
Oxidation reaction Reduction reaction

• The oxidation reaction by • The reduction reaction in
which metals form ions that go which a metal or nonmetal is
into aqueous solution is called reduced in valence charge is
the anodic reaction, and the
local regions on the metal called the cathodic reaction.
surface where the oxidation The local regions on the metal
reaction takes place are called surface where metal ions or
local anodes. nonmetal ions are reduced in
• In the anodic reaction, valence charge are called local
electrons are produced that cathodes.
remain in the metal, and the • In the cathode reaction there
metal atoms form cations is a consumption of electrons
Corrosion Process
• Electrochemical corrosion reactions involve

oxidation reactions that produce electrons and
reduction reactions that consume them.
• Both oxidation and reduction reactions must occur
at the same time and the same overall rate to
prevent a buildup of electric charge in the metal.
EMF Determination Standard half-cell
electrode potential
• In one beaker, an electrode of the
metal (Zn) whose standard
potential is to be determined is
immersed in a 1 M solution of its
ions at 25°C.
• In the other beaker, a platinum
electrode is immersed in a 1 M
solution of H+ ions into which
hydrogen gas is bubbled.
• When the switch is just closed, the
voltage between the half-cells is
measured.
• The potential due to the hydrogen
half-cell reaction H2 → 2H+ + 2e− is
arbitrarily assigned zero voltage.
• Thus, the voltage of the metal (zinc)
half-cell reaction Zn → Zn2+ + 2e− is
measured directly against the Experimental setup for the determination of
hydrogen standard half-cell the standard emf of zinc
electrode
Demonstration of Platinum as Catalyst
Platinum is great at forming hydrogen gas from protons so acts as a catalyst for
this reaction
The oxidation takes place on the zinc surface and the reduction on the platinum
surface, they just need to be in electrical contact
http://generic.wordpress.soton.ac.uk/discoverelectrochemistry/electrochemistry-explanations/
Standard Electrode Potential
• The potentials are reported as voltages, E°.
• Li, E° = −3.045 is the strongest reducing agent (oxidizes and donates electrons)
• Au, E° = +1.5 is the strongest oxidizing agent in the table (accepts electrons and
reduces)
• Metals that have smaller or more negative E° values are more anodic to those
with positive or less negative E° values.
Metals with positive E°
Metals with negative E°
Macroscopic Galvanic Cells with One
Molar Electrolytes
• A macroscopic galvanic cell can be
constructed with two dissimilar metal
electrodes each immersed in a solution of
their own ions.
• The electrode that has the more negative
potential will be the electrode that is oxidized
• A reduction reaction will take place at the
electrode that has the more positive
potential.
• The electrode that is oxidized is called the
anode and electrode where the reduction
takes place is called the cathode.
• Copper atoms are plated out on the copper
cathode
http://generic.wordpress.soton.ac.uk/discoverelectrochemistry/electrochemistry-explanations/
Electrochemical potential of the Zn–Cu
galvanic cell
• Oxidation half-cell reactions for zinc and copper
• Zn half-cell reaction has the more negative potential (−0.763 V for Zn

versus +0.337 V for Cu).
• Zn electrode will be oxidized to Zn2+ ions (Eanode = −0.763)
• Cu2+ ions will be reduced to Cu at the Cu electrode (Ecathode= +0.337).
• Electrochemical potential of the cell, the electromotive force (emf),
Ecell
Example 5
Microscopic Galvanic Cell Corrosion of Single
Zinc Electrode
• If a single electrode of zinc is placed in a dilute solution of air-free
hydrochloric acid, it will be corroded electrochemically since
microscopic local anodes and cathodes will develop on its surface
due to inhomogeneities in structure and composition.
The oxidation reaction that will occur at
the local anodes is
The reduction reaction that will occur at

the local cathodes is
Electrochemical reactions for zinc

immersed in dilute hydrochloric acid
Microscopic Galvanic Cell Corrosion of Single
Electrodes - Iron
• If a piece of iron is immersed in oxygenated water, ferric hydroxide
[Fe(OH)3] will form on its surface.
The oxidation reaction that occurs at microscopic
local anodes is
The reduction reaction occurring at the local

cathodes
The overall reaction is obtained by adding the

two reactions
Ferrous hydroxide, Fe(OH)2 further oxidized to

Electrochemical reactions for iron ferric hydroxide, Fe(OH)3
immersed in oxygenated neutral water
solution
Example 6
Rate of Uniform Corrosion or Electroplating
of a Metal in an Aqueous Solution
• The amount of metal uniformly corroded from an anode or electroplated on a
cathode in an aqueous solution in a time period can be determined by using
Faraday’s equation of general chemistry.
• Sometimes the uniform aqueous corrosion of a metal is expressed in terms of a

current density i, which is often expressed in amperes per square centimeter
Example 7
Example 8: Uniform surface corrosion
• Uniform surface corrosion is often expressed as milligram weight loss per square
decimeter per day (mdd)
Galvanic Series
• Many important engineering
metals form passive films, they
do not behave in galvanic cells as
the standard electrode
potentials.
• For practical applications where
corrosion is an important factor,
a new type of series called the
galvanic series has been
developed for anodic-cathodic
relationships.
• A galvanic series should be
determined experimentally for
every corrosive environment.
Oxidation Rates
• Oxidation rate of many metals and alloys determines the useful life of
equipment.
• The rate of oxidation of metals and alloys is usually measured and
expressed as the weight gained per unit area.
Metals that have porous or cracked oxide
films: Potassium, Tantalum
Thick coherent oxides: Iron, copper, and

cobalt
Al, Cu, and Fe oxidize at ambient or slightly

elevated temperatures to form thin films
Wear Test
Wear Test
• To predict the wear performance of materials and to investigate the

wear mechanisms that occur.
• Importance of abrasion test:
1. Determine if products comply with industry standards
2. Reduce the risk of product failure & related product warranty costs
3. Anticipate how a product will perform against another similar product
4. Enhance their competitive advantage
5. Assess functionality and appropriateness for intended use
6. Carry out materials research and development

https://www.azom.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=16073#:~:text=A%20precision%20instrument%20used%20for,will%20be%20repeatable%20and%20reproducible.
Rotational Wear Test

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Svmgar6pL4A
Rotational Wear Test
• Flat, pin or ball tip is loaded onto a test sample with a precise weight
and at a specific position from the centre of rotation.
• As the sample starts rotating, the tip creates a rotational wear track.
• Friction coefficient is accurately measured by the deflection of a load
cell.
• Wear rates for the sample can be calculated from 2D profile at
chosen positions.
• Following properties can be analysed:
✓Friction Coefficient
✓ Wear Rates
✓Failure Points
✓Electrical Resistance
✓Lubrication & Corrosion Studies
✓ Friction vs Speed
✓Scratch Hardness
✓ Static Coefficient of friction Ravindra G Bhardwaj 102

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Material Testing and

Platen Software controller

• The force data can be converted to

• Tolerances on the width of the test piece

• Strong in compression, due to the fact that the compression test

Ductile Brittle Creep Fatigue

• Load beyond • No plastic • Time dependent • Sudden, and

• The ductile fracture of a metal occurs after extensive plastic

• Brittle fracture usually proceeds along characteristic

• Brittle fractures occur because of the Metal alloy

• Dynamic or impact toughness is a measure of the amount of

• ISO 148-1: Impact test of metallic materials

• Determine the material resistance against the presence of a sharp

• The fracture plane is • Fracture occurs under • Fracture occurs by

• The critical value of the stress-intensity factor that causes

• Plain strain condition

Low Little plastic

• EN ISO 12135 - Determination of quasistatic fracture toughness

• In many types of service

• Below the stresses

• Kinds of fatigue test methods used in industry and research: axial,

Completely reversed Repeated stress cycle Random stress cycle

• Used to calculate crack growth rate in a material having pre-existing

da/dN = fatigue crack growth rate,

• ASTM C1368 Slow Crack Growth of Ceramics in Flexure

• First an instantaneous, rapid elongation of the specimen.

• The creep rate is essentially constant and is therefore also

• Creep rate rapidly increases with time up to the strain at

Higher temperatures (i.e., above about

Lower temperatures (i.e., below 0.4TM),

The stress to produce a

• Higher loads are applied

316 stainless steel

• Slope changes are caused by factors such as recrystallization,

• Creep–stress rupture data for high-temperature creep-resistant alloys

• Corrosion may be defined as the deterioration of a material resulting

• The zinc dissolves or corrodes in the acid, and zinc chloride

• In a simplified ionic form, omitting the chloride ions

Oxidation half-cell Reduction half-cell

Oxidation reaction Reduction reaction

• Electrochemical corrosion reactions involve

Metals with positive E°

Metals with negative E°

• Zn half-cell reaction has the more negative potential (−0.763 V for Zn

The reduction reaction that will occur at

Electrochemical reactions for zinc

The reduction reaction occurring at the local

The overall reaction is obtained by adding the

Ferrous hydroxide, Fe(OH)2 further oxidized to

• Sometimes the uniform aqueous corrosion of a metal is expressed in terms of a

Thick coherent oxides: Iron, copper, and

Al, Cu, and Fe oxidize at ambient or slightly

• To predict the wear performance of materials and to investigate the

Ravindra G Bhardwaj 100

Ravindra G Bhardwaj 101

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