Material Testing and

Technology
Dr. Ravindra G Bhardwaj
Material Testing and Technology
• Books I am Using:
1. Technology of Engineering and Materials, 1st Ed. by M.
Philip and W. Bolton
2. Material Science and Engineering, 9th Ed. By W. D.
Callister and D. G. Rethwisch
3. Foundations of Materials Science and Engineering, 4th
Ed. By W. F. Smith and J. Hashemi
4. Google!

Ravindra Bhardwaj 2
Introduction to Materials and
Testing Methods
• Objectives:
✓Information on properties of varied materials
encountered by engineers.
✓Able to identify the terminology of describing basic
properties of engineering materials.
✓Able to use data sources to obtain relevant data of
materials.
✓Able to identify the applications of the materials.

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 Materials Classifications Based on
Properties
Material
Classification

Metals Polymers Ceramics Composites

• High thermal • Low thermal • Thermal insulators • High strength

conductivity conductivity • Brittle • Low density
• High Density • Low Density • Electrical insulators • Electrical insulators
• Ductile • Low electrical • High stiffness • High stiffness
• High electrical conductivity • Stronger in • High strength
conductivity • Lower stiffness compression than • Ductile
• High stiffness • Lower strength tension
• High strength • Chemically inert
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Properties of Materials
• Case Study: Soft-drink bottle
• Properties need to be
considered
▪ Low density
▪ Stiffness
▪ Chemically inert
▪ Formable
▪ Recyclable
▪ Inexpensive
• Examples: Aluminium, Glass,
Polyethylene terephthalate
(PET)

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Properties of Materials
1. Physical Properties
• Density, Melting point
2. Mechanical Properties
• Strength, Stiffness, Hardness, Wear resistance
3. Electrical Properties
• Resistivity, Conductivity, Capacitance
4. Thermal Properties
• Heat capacity, Thermal conductivity, Melting point
5. Optical Properties
• Refractive index, Transmittivity
6. Chemical Properties
• Corrosion resistance, Solvent resistance
7. Magnetic Properties
• Magnetization, Permeability
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Mechanical Properties
• Tensile strength
• Yield stress
• Elastic modulus
• Poisson’s ratio
• Ductility
• Hardness
• Toughness

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Stress-Strain Graph
• Fundamental Overview
• Stress-Strain Graphs
• Examples of Stress-Strain Graphs
• Numerical/Examples
 Fundamentals Overview

Tension Compression Bending

𝐸𝑥𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 (𝐹)

𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜎 =
𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝐴)

𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ (∆𝐿)

𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝜀 =
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ (𝐿0 )

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Stress-Strain Graph

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https://yasincapar.com/engineering-stress-strain-vs-true-stress-strain/
 Stress Strain Graph
Elastic Elastic Plastic
Region + Region U
Plastic
Region
YU F
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜎

P YL

P = Proportionality limit
C B YU = Upper Yield Point
YL = Lower Yield Point
U = Ultimate Strength
F = Fracture Point

𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝜀
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Examples of Stress-Strain Graphs
Elastomer
Ductile
Plastic
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝜀

Brittle

0.2%
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜎
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Example: 1 Mechanical Property
Determinations from Stress–Strain
Plot

(a)

(b)

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Callister, W.D. and Rethwisch, D.G., 2018. Materials science and engineering: an introduction (Vol. 9). New York: Wiley.
Example: 1 Mechanical Property
Determinations from Stress–Strain
Plot
(c)

(d)

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Callister, W.D. and Rethwisch, D.G., 2018. Materials science and engineering: an introduction (Vol. 9). New York: Wiley.
 Poisson’s Ratio Ductility
• Ductility of a material is measured by
percentage elongation or reduction
in area of a specimen after fracture.
% 𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ − 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
= × 100
𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝑙 − 𝑙0
= × 100
𝑙0
%𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 − 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
= × 100
𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
+𝜀𝑧 = 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝐴0 −𝐴𝑓
= × 100
𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝐴0

−𝜀𝑥 = 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑟 Material %elongation

𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 Mild steel 20%
For isotropic material: Cast iron 1%
Thermoplastics 50% - 500%
𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝜀𝑥
ν=− = Thermosets 0.1% - 1%
𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝜀𝑧
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Toughness
• It is measure of the energy a
material can absorb before
it fractures.
• Toughness can be measured
as the area under the stress-
strain curve up to point of
fracture.
• Good strength and ductility.
Ravindra Bhardwaj
Hardness
• It is surface property
measuring its resistance to
abrasion and indentation.
• Mohs scale: Qualitative
hardness indexing scale. 1
for talc (soft) and 10 for
diamond (hard)
• Techniques:
✓ Rockwell hardness tests
✓ Brinell hardness test
✓ Vickers microhardness test
✓ Knoop microhardness test
16
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Electrical resistivity and
conductivity
• Electrical resistivity is measure of resistance to
flow of electric current.
𝑅𝐴
• 𝜌= Ω𝑚
𝐿
• Electrical conductivity is measure of compliance
to flow of electric current. It is reciprocal of
resistivity.
1
• 𝜎= (Ω𝑚)−1 or S/m
𝜌

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How to Measure Electrical
Resistivity

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0yDtMHlwG3U
Capacitance and Permittivity
• Capacitors are energy storage devices which
have the ability to store an electrical charge
across its plates.
• A capacitor consists of two metal plates
separated by a dielectric.
• The dielectric can be made of many
insulating materials such as air, glass, paper,
plastic etc.
• Capacitance is dependent on plate area (A),
separation (d) of plates and medium (𝜀).
𝜀𝐴
• Permittivity or dielectric constant measures 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉; 𝐶 = ; 𝜀 = 𝜀𝑟 𝜀0
the ability of a material to store charge or to 𝑑
act as capacitor in an electric field.

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https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/capacitor/cap_9.html
Measuring Capacitance Using a
Multimeter
Discharge the capacitor completely
by connecting it across a resistor.
Take a capacitor whose capacitance
Connect a 20,000 Ω, 5-watt resistor
is to be measured
across the capacitor terminals for
five seconds

Connect the test leads to the

capacitor terminals. Keep test leads
Turn the dial to the Capacitance
connected for a few seconds to allow
Measurement mode.
the multimeter to automatically
select the proper range.

Read the measurement displayed. If the capacitance value is

within the measurement range, the multimeter will display
the capacitor’s value. It will display OL if a) the capacitance
value is higher than the measurement range or b) the
capacitor is faulty.
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https://www.fluke.com/en/learn/blog/digital-multimeters/how-to-measure-capacitance; https://tameson.com/capacitor-multimeter.html
Superconductivity
• First observation: In 1911, the Dutch
physicist Heike Kamerlingh Onnes and
his team discovered that the electrical
resistance of mercury goes to zero
below 4.2 K (-269°C).
• A superconductor is diamagnetic: it
refuses to let magnetism penetrate
inside it.
• Stand a superconductor in a magnetic
field and you'll make electric currents
flow through its surface.
• These currents create a magnetic field
that exactly cancels the original field
trying to get inside the
superconductor and repelling the
magnetic field outside.
• This is known as the Meissner effect
and it explains how you can make a
superconductor levitate (float) in a
magnetic field.
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https://www.explainthatstuff.com/superconductors.html
Thermal Properties
• Heat capacity
• Thermal conductivity
• Coefficient of linear expansion
• Thermal stresses

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Heat Capacity
• Heat capacity indicates material’s ability to
absorb heat from the external surrounding.
• It represents the amount of energy required
to produce a unit temperature rise.
𝑑𝑄 𝐽
𝐶= ൗ𝐾
𝑑𝑇
• 𝑑𝑄 is the amount of energy required to
produce a 𝑑𝑇 temperature change.
• Volumetric heat capacity and Pressure heat
capacity
• Specific heat capacity (c): Heat capacity per
unit mass.

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https://www.rheologylab.com/services/thermal-conductivity-specific-heat-capacity/
Thermal Conductivity
• The property that measures how well heat is 𝑇 = 𝑇𝐻 𝑇 = 𝑇𝐿
transmitted through a material is called thermal
conductivity.
• Thermal conduction is the process of heat
transportation from high temperature to low
temperature region of a substance.
• Thermal conduction for steady state is formulated as,
𝑑𝑇
ሶ
𝑄 = −𝑘𝐴
𝑑𝑥
• 𝑄ሶ is heat transfer rate (W), 𝑘 is thermal conductivity
(W/mK), 𝐴 is cross sectional area (m2), 𝑇 is temperature
(K) and 𝑑𝑥 is length. 𝑥=0 𝑥=𝐿
𝑄ሶ 𝑊
• Heat flux: 𝑞ሶ = 𝐴 (𝑚2 )

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https://global.kyocera.com/fcworld/charact/heat/thermalcond.html
Coefficient of Linear Expansion
• Thermal expansion is the phenomena of
small increments in size and volume of
solid materials due to heating.
• The change in the length with
temperature of a solid material is given
by,
∆𝑙
= 𝛼𝑙 ∆𝑇
𝑙0
• Volumetric change with temperature is
given by,
∆𝑉
= 𝛼𝑣 ∆𝑇 𝑙0 𝑙𝑓
𝑉0
• The linear coefficient of thermal 𝛼𝑙 is linear coefficient of thermal
expansion indicates how much a expansion
material expands per 1℃ (2.2℉) rise in
temperature. Unit is per degree C or K. 𝛼𝑣 is volume coefficient of
thermal expansion
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https://global.kyocera.com/fcworld/charact/heat/thermaexpan.html
 Thermal Stresses
• Thermal stresses are stresses induced in a body as a
result of temperature change.
• Thermal stresses generates fracture or undesirable
plastic deformation.
• Consider, thermal expansion of rod is restrained,
then
• Total change in length = Change in length due to
Thermal Stress + Change in length due to Normal
Stress
𝑅𝑙0
0 = 𝛿𝑇 + 𝛿𝑁 = 𝛼∆𝑇𝑙0 + −
𝐴𝐸 For ∆𝑇 > 0, 𝜎𝑡ℎ is compressive
For ∆𝑇 < 0, 𝜎𝑡ℎ is Tensile
𝑅 = 𝛼∆𝑇𝐴𝐸

𝑅
𝜎𝑡ℎ = = 𝛼𝑙 ∆𝑇𝐸
𝐴
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 Materials

Ravindra Bhardwaj
Thermal Properties of Some

28

Callister Jr, W.D. and Rethwisch, D.G., 2020. Callister's materials science and engineering. John
Wiley & Sons.
Example 2: Thermal Stress
Created Upon Heating

• Take 𝛼 = 20 E-6 /°C

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Optical Properties
• Refraction
• Reflection
• Absorption
• Transmission

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Refraction
• The bending of light when it passes from one transparent
medium to another is termed as refraction.
• Index of refraction 𝑛 of a material is given by,
𝑐
𝑛=
𝑣

1 1
𝑐= ;𝑣 =
𝜖0 𝜇0 𝜖𝜇

𝑛 = 𝜖𝑟 𝜇𝑟
• For heavy atom, large electronic polarization → slower
velocity → greater refractive index

Ravindra Bhardwaj 31
https://phys.libretexts.org/Courses/University_of_California_Davis/UCD%3A_Physics_9B__Waves_Sound_Optics_Thermodynamics_and_Fluids/03%3A_Physical_Optics/3.06%3A_Reflection_Refraction_and_Dispersion
Reflection
• Scattering of light at the interface between the two media is
known as reflection phenomena.
𝐼𝑅
• Reflectivity: 𝑅 =
𝐼0
• If light is normal (perpendicular) to the interface,
2
𝑛2 − 𝑛1
𝑅=
𝑛2 + 𝑛1
• When light is transmitted from vacuum or air into solid,
2
𝑛𝑠 − 1
𝑅=
𝑛𝑠 + 1

Ravindra Bhardwaj 32
Absorption
• The intensity of the net absorbed radiation is dependent on the
character of the medium and the path length.
• The intensity of transmitted or non-absorbed radiation 𝐼𝑇′ continuously
decreases with the distance 𝑥 that the light traverses

𝐼𝑇′ = 𝐼0′ 𝑒 −𝛽𝑥

• 𝐼0′ is intensity of non-reflected incident radiation, 𝛽 is absorption
coefficient (in mm-1)
• 𝛽 varies with wavelength if incident radiation.
• 𝛽 is high for highly absorptive materials.

Ravindra Bhardwaj 33
https://javalab.org/en/absorption_and_emission_of_light_en/
Transmission
• The fraction of incident light that transmitted through a transparent
material depends on the losses that are incurred by absorption and
reflection.

𝑅+𝐴+𝑇 =1

Ravindra Bhardwaj 34
Callister Jr, W.D. and Rethwisch, D.G., 2020. Callister's materials science and engineering. John Wiley & Sons.
Example 3: Absorption Coefficient
of Glass

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Chemical Properties
• Reactivity
• Corrosion
• Electronegativity
• Toxicity
• pH

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Reactivity
• Reactivity is a measure of
how readily a substance
undergoes a chemical
reaction.

𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 𝑘𝐴

• 𝑘 is reaction constant
(independent of
concentration), 𝐴 is product
of the molar concentration of
the reactants raised to the
reaction order.
• A simple explanation of
reactivity is that it increases
with the ease of accepting or
donating an electron.
Ravindra Bhardwaj 37
https://www.chemistrylearner.com/chemical-bonds; https://www.thoughtco.com/reactivity-definition-4147073
Corrosion
• Corrosion is the electrochemical process of reaction of
surface of a metal with atmospheric moisture.
• Expressed in terms of thickness or weight loss where
the surface of the metal corrodes uniformly across the
area that has been exposed.
𝑅𝑐 = 𝑑ൗ𝑡
• 𝑑 is total degradation (μm), 𝑡 is time duration (years)
• According to weight loss:
𝐾𝑊
𝑅𝑐 =
𝜌𝐴𝑡
• 𝐾 is constant, 𝑊 is total weight lost (grams), 𝜌 is
density, 𝐴 is surface area of the exposed metal, 𝑡 is
time taken for the loss of metal
Ravindra Bhardwaj 38
https://www.corrosionpedia.com/definition/337/corrosion-rate#:~:text=Corrosion%20rate%20is%20best%20expressed,Weight%20loss%20g%2Fm2
Electronegativity
• The ability of an atom to attract the electrons shared with
another atom.
• The relative electronegativities of the various atoms can be
determined by measuring the polarities of the bonds
involving the atoms

Ravindra Bhardwaj 39
https://www.britannica.com/science/chemical-compound#ref614978
Toxicity
• How dangerous a chemical is to your health, a
particular organ, another organism, or to the
environment.
• This property can only be observed and measured
by exposing an organic system to a sample.
Causes
Cancer

Mutations

Allergy

Physical Damage

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https://www.purdue.edu/research/oevprp/docs/pdf/Introduction%20to%20Chemical%20Hazards%20in%20the%20Workplace.pdf
Ravindra Bhardwaj 41
pH
• Measures how acidic/basic an object is.
• Measuring instruments:
1. Glass electrodes
2. Reference electrodes
3. Combination electrodes

Ravindra Bhardwaj 42
https://stock.adobe.com/ae/search?k=%22ph+scale%22; https://www.mt.com/mt_ext_files/Editorial/Generic/1/Guides_to_Electrochemical_Analysis_0x000248ff00025c9a00093c4a_files/guideph.pdf
Magnetic Properties
• Magnetic Dipoles and Field Vectors
• Permeability, Magnetization and Susceptibility
• Types of Magnetism
• Hysteresis Curve

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Magnetic Dipoles and Field
Vectors

Magnetic dipole
moments
• The externally applied magnetic field is called as magnetic field strength
𝐻
𝑁𝐼
𝐻=
𝑙
• Magnetic induction or magnetic flux density 𝐵 represents the
magnitude of the internal field strength within a substance that is
subjected to 𝐻 field.
𝐵 = 𝜇𝐻
• Both 𝐵 and 𝐻 are field vectors.
Ravindra Bhardwaj 44
http://teachersofphysics.com/knowledgebase/magnetic-field-patterns/
Permeability, Magnetization and
Susceptibility
• Magnetic permeability (μ): Measure of magnetization that a material
obtains in response to an applied magnetic field.
• Relative permeability (𝜇𝑟 ) : Measure of the degree to which the
material can be magnetized.
𝜇
𝜇𝑟 =
𝜇0
• Magnetization is the vector field that expresses the density of
permanent or induced magnetic dipole moments in a magnetic
material.
𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝐻 + 𝑀
𝑀 = 𝜒𝑚 𝐻
• Magnetic Susceptibility (𝜒𝑚 ): Measure of how much a material will
become magnetized in an applied magnetic field.
𝜒𝑚 = 𝜇𝑟 − 1

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Magnetic Quantity Units

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Types of Magnetism

Paramagnetic Ferromagnetic Antiferromagnetic Ferrimagnetic

Ravindra Bhardwaj 47
https://www.doitpoms.ac.uk/tlplib/ferromagnetic/types.php
Magnetic Hysteresis Curve
M
Saturation

Retentivity

Coercivity
H

Negative Saturation
Ravindra Bhardwaj 48
https://msestudent.com/which-metals-are-magnetic-list-of-ferromagnetic-and-ferrimagnetic-materials/
Magnetic Behaviour

Ravindra Bhardwaj 49
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bsecv.2020.01.011
Example 4: Plain Carbon Steel
Hysteresis

(a) Construct a graph of B versus H.

(b) What are the values of the initial permeability and initial relative permeability?
(c) What is the value of the maximum permeability?
(d) At about what H field does this maximum permeability occur?
(e) To what magnetic susceptibility does this maximum permeability correspond?

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Example 4: Solution
(a) (b)

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Example 4: Solution
(c, d) (e)

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Applications by Properties
• Weights, Truss, Bridge, Structure
Physical Properties • Candles, Whiteboard

• Automobiles, Spacecraft
Mechanical Properties • Machines, Structures

• Conducting wires, Batteries, Electrical appliances

Electrical Properties • Integrated chips (IC), Quantum computing

• Internal combustion engines, Power plants

Thermal Properties • Thermoelectric battery and storage

• Solar cells, Solar heater

Optical Properties • Optical fibre, imaging (X-ray)

• Corrosion resistance paints, wall paints, electrochemical battery

Chemical Properties • Fuels, foods, consumables

• Memory storage devices, superconductors

Magnetic Properties • Drug delivery, power generation and transmission
Ravindra Bhardwaj 53
Introduction to Materials and
Testing Methods
• Objectives:
✓Information on properties of varied materials
encountered by engineers.
✓Able to identify the terminology of describing basic
properties of engineering materials.
✓Able to use data sources to obtain relevant data of
materials.
✓Able to identify the applications of the materials.

Ravindra Bhardwaj 54
Thank you

Ravindra Bhardwaj 55