Mechanical Behavior, Testing and

Manufacturing Properties of
Materials
Manufacturing Processes
Third Topic
 Classes of Properties Affecting Product Design
Class Property Class Property
Price & Availability 4. General Physical Density
1. Economic & Recyclability Resistivity
Environmental Sustainability 5. Electrical & Magnetic Dielectric Constant
Carbon Emission Magnetic Permeability
Elastic Modulus Oxidation
6. Environmental
Yield and Tensile Strength Corrosion
Interaction
Hardness Wear
2. Mechanical Fracture Toughness Ease of Manufacturing
Fatigue Strength 7. Production Joining
Creep Strength Finishing
Damping Color
Thermal Conductivity 8. Aesthetic Texture
3. Thermal Specific Heat Feel
Thermal Expansion Coefficient
 Relative Mechanical Properties of Materials
• Relative Mechanical Properties of Various Materials at Room Temperature, in Decreasing Order.
Are shown as follows:
Strength Hardness Toughness Stiffness Strength/Density
Glass fibers Diamond Ductile metals Diamond Reinforced plastics
Graphite fibers Cubic boron nitride Reinforced plastics Carbides Titanium
Kevlar fibers Carbides Thermoplastics Tungsten Steel
Carbides Hardened steels Wood Steel Aluminum
Molybdenum Titanium Thermosets Copper Magnesium
Steels Cast irons Ceramics Titanium Beryllium
Tantalum Copper Glass Aluminum Copper
Titanium Thermosets Ceramics Tantalum
Copper Magnesium Tin Reinforced plastics
Reinforced Thermosets Thermoplastics Wood
Reinforced Thermoplastics Lead Thermosets
Lead Rubbers Thermoplastics
 Tensile-Test Specimen and Machine
• The tensile test is the most common method for
determining the mechanical properties of materials,
such as:
1.Strength 2. Ductility
3. Toughness 4. Elastic Modulus
5. Strain Hardening Capability
• A tensile specimens is usually a standardized sample
with specific length & cross-section. It has two
shoulders (sometime pined or even with a hole) and a
smaller uniform gage (section) in between (dog bone
shape).
• The most common testing machine used in tensile
testing is the Universal Testing Machine.
• This type of machine has two crossheads; one is adjusted
for the length of the specimen and the other is driven to
apply tension to the test specimen.
• There are four main parameters; force capacity,
speed, precision and accuracy.
• It is powered either; hydraulically or electromagnetically.
• The force is most commonly measured with a load cell or
load dial.
• The displacement (elongation) is most commonly
measured with an extensometer or strain gauges.
 Stress & Strain
• During tensile test the specimen with cross
sectional area (A) is being subjected to an
opposite, equal and changing forces (F) (tension)
in order to maintain a constant speed.
• Materials under tension forces experience
elongation in length (ℓ0→ℓ) and reduction in cross
sectional area (A0→A).
• The ratio of the force to the cross sectional area is
called stress.
• The strain is a measurement of deformation of the
specimen from a reference configuration to
a current configuration.
• The engineering stress (nominal stress) is defined
as the ratio of the applied load (F) to the original
cross-sectional area (A0) of the specimen:
𝐹
𝜎=𝐴
0
• The engineering strain is defined as:
(𝑙−𝑙0)
𝑒=
𝑙0
 Stress-Strain Curve
• A Stress-Strain Curve plots stress (y-axis) against strain (x-axis).
• When the load is first applied, the specimen elongates in
proportion to the load, called linear elastic behavior. If the load
is removed, the specimen returns to its original length and
shape.
• As the load is increased, the specimen begins to undergo
nonlinear elastic deformation at a stress called the
proportional limit.
• Permanent (plastic) deformation occurs when the yield stress
(Y) of the material is reached.
• Yield stress is usually defined by drawing a line with the same
slope as the linear elastic curve, but that is offset by a strain of
0.002.
• As the specimen begins to elongate under a continuously
increasing load, its cross-sectional area decreases permanently
and uniformly throughout its gage length.
• As the load is increased further, the engineering stress
eventually reaches a maximum (ultimate tensile strength -
UTS) and then begins to decrease.
• If the specimen is loaded beyond its ultimate tensile strength, it
begins to neck. As the test progresses, the engineering stress
drops further and the specimen finally fractures.
Mechanical Properties of Various Materials at
Room Temperature
 Loading and Unloading of Tensile-Test
Specimen
• If the specimen is unloaded from a
stress level higher than the yield
stress, the curve follows a straight line
downward and parallel to the original
slope of the curve.
• By unloading at a certain point then
starting the test over the stress-strain
curve will follow the right-hand elastic
curve (straight line) portion of the
diagram back up to that point, and it
becomes the new yield stress of the
material . Also, the origin of the plot
shifts to the right, to where the end of
the unload line is. Hence, the
elongation at failure is reduced
because it is closer to the origin.
 Modulus of Elasticity
• The ratio of stress to strain in the
elastic region is the modulus of
elasticity (E) or Young’s modulus:
𝜎
𝐸=
𝑒
This linear relationship is known as
Hooke’s law.
• The modulus of elasticity is the slope
of the elastic portion of the curve and
hence the stiffness of the material.
• The elongation of the specimen under
tension is accompanied by lateral
contraction; the absolute value of the
ratio of the lateral strain to the
longitudinal strain is known as
Poisson’s ratio (v).
 Ductility
• Ductility-the extent of plastic
deformation that the material
undergoes before fracture.
• There are two common measures of
ductility:
𝑙𝑓 −𝑙0
1. 𝐸𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑙0
× 100
𝐴0 −𝐴𝑓
2. 𝑅𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝐴0
× 100
 Modulus of Resilience and
Modulus of Toughness
• The modulus of resilience is
defined as the maximum energy
that can be absorbed per unit
volume without creating a
permanent distortion.
𝑌𝑒0 𝑌2
𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 2
= 2𝐸

• The modulus of toughness is

defined as the maximum energy
that can be absorbed per unit
volume without fracture.
 True Stress & True Strain
• The instantaneous cross-sectional area of the specimen becomes
smaller as it elongates.
• While Engineering stress is based on the original cross-sectional area A0.
True stress is based on the actual cross-sectional area A.
𝑃
𝜎=𝐴
• True strain consider the elongation of the specimen as consisting of
increments of instantaneous change in length.
𝑙
𝜖 = ln 𝑙0
• The true stress-true strain curve can be represented by the equation
𝜎 = 𝐾𝜖 𝑛
where K is the strength coefficient and n is the strain-hardening exponent
• Note the correction to the curve, reflecting the fact that the specimen’s
necked region is subjected to three-dimensional tensile stresses
• The true strain at the onset of necking is numerically equal to the strain
hardening exponent (n) of the material. Thus, the higher the value of
(n), the higher the strain that a piece of material can experience before
it begins to neck.
𝐴0
𝜖 = ln 𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑘
=𝑛
Typical Values for K and n for Metals True stress-true strain curves in tension
at Room Temperature at room temperature for various metals
 Temperature & Rate-of-
Deformation Effects
• Increasing the temperature generally has the following effects on stress-strain
curves:
a) The ductility and toughness increase.
b) The yield stress and the modulus of elasticity decrease.
c) The strain-hardening exponent of most metals decreases with increasing
temperature.
• The deformation rate is defined as the speed at which a tension test is being carried
out.
• Increasing the strain rate increases the strength of the material (strain-rate
hardening).
• The influence of rate of deformation is best described in conjunction with the
temperature.
• The slope of these curves is called the strain-rate sensitivity exponent (m). The
value of (m) is obtained from log-log plot:
𝜎 = 𝐶ἐ𝑚
where C is the strength coefficient and ἐ is the true strain rate
• With increasing (m) the material stretches farther before it fails; thus, increasing (m)
delays necking. Ductility enhancement Caused by the high strain-rate sensitivity of
some materials has been exploited in superplastic forming of sheet metal.
 Compression Test
• Another test for studying materials mechanical properties is
the compression test, in which the specimen is subjected to
a compressive load, those properties examined are:
a) Forces required for deformation
b) Power required for deformation
• This test is usually carried out by compressing specimen
between two well-lubricated flat dies (platens).
• Shape of the specimen:
a) For metals and certain plastics: cylinder
b) For building materials: cube
• The slender specimens can buckle during this test; thus, the
height-to-diameter ratio of the solid cylindrical specimen is
typically less than 3:1.
• Because of friction between the specimen and the platens,
the specimen’s cylindrical surface bulges, an effect is called
barreling. Thus, obtaining the stress-strain curves in
compression can be difficult. With effective lubrication,
friction can be minimized and a reasonably constant cross
sectional area can be maintained during the test.
• When a metal is subjected to tension into the plastic range,
and then the load is released and a compressive load is
applied, the yield stress in compression is found to be lower
than that in tension. This phenomenon is also called strain
softening or work softening (Bauschinger effect).
 Compression Test for Brittle Materials &
Disk Test
• When comparing true stress-true strain curves resulted from
tensile test with that for compression test:
• For ductile metals it can be seen that the curves coincide
• For brittle materials the curves differ, because in compression
they are generally stronger and more ductile
• For brittle materials such as ceramics and glasses a disk test
has been developed, in which the disk is subjected to
compression between two hardened flat platens.
• When the material is loaded as shown, tensile stresses
develop perpendicular to the vertical centerline along the
disk; fracture begins and the disk splits in half vertically.
• The tensile stress (σ) in the disk is uniform along the
centerline and can be calculated from the formula
2𝑃
𝜎 = 𝜋𝑑𝑡
where P is the load at fracture, d is the diameter of the disk,
and t is its thickness.
• In order to avoid premature failure at the contact points, thin
strips of soft metal are placed between the disk and the
platens. These strips also protect the platens from being
damaged during the test.
• The fracture at the center of the specimen has been utilized
in the manufacture of seamless tubing.
 Torsion Test
• The test method generally used to determine properties of
materials in shear is the torsion test.
• Shape of the specimen:
• Thin tubular: In order to obtain an approximately uniform stress and
strain distribution along the cross section.
• Has reduced cross section: In order to confine the deformation to a
narrow zone.
• The shear stress can be calculated from the formula
𝑇
𝜏 = 2𝜋𝑟 2𝑡
where T is the torque, r is the average radius of the tube, and t is
the thickness of the tube at its narrow section.
• The shear strain can be calculated from the formula
𝑟∅
𝛾= 𝑙
where I is the length of tube subjected to torsion and ø the angle
of twist (in radians).
• The ratio of the shear stress to the shear strain in the elastic
range is known as the shear modulus, or modulus of rigidity (G),
a quantity related to the modulus of elasticity (E).
• The angle of twist (ø) to fracture in the torsion of solid round
bars at elevated temperatures is also useful in estimating the
forgeability of metals. The greater the number of twists prior to
failure, the better is the forgeability
 Bending Test
• Preparing specimens from brittle materials, such as ceramics and
carbides, is difficult because of:
• The problems involved in shaping and machining them to proper
dimensions
• The specimens are sensitive to surface defects and notches
• The clamping brittle test specimens for testing is difficult
• The improper alignment of the test specimen may result in a non-
uniform stress distribution along the cross section.
• A commonly used test method for brittle materials is the bend or
flexure test.
• Bend test usually involves a specimen that has a rectangular cross
section that is supported from both sides, as the load is applied
vertically, at either one point or two points; as a result, these tests
are referred to as three-point and four-point bending.
• The longitudinal stresses in the specimens are tensile at their
lower surfaces and compressive at their upper surfaces.
• The stress at fracture in bending is known as the modulus of
rupture, or transverse rupture strength.
• Four-point bending has a large region of constant maximum
bending moment; by contrast, the maximum bending moment
occurs only at the center of the specimen in three-point bending.
As there is a higher probability that defects exist in the larger
volume, the four-point test gives a lower modulus of rupture than
the three-point test.
 Hardness Tests
• Hardness is a commonly used property; it gives a general
indication of the strength of the material and of its
resistance to scratching and to wear.
• Hardness is usually defined as resistance to permanent
indentation.
• Hardness, however, is not a fundamental property, because
the resistance to indentation depends on the shape of the
indenter and on the load applied.
• Several test methods using different indenter materials and
shapes have been developed to measure the hardness of
materials.
• Depending on the condition of the material, one of two types
of impression develops on the surface. The impressions in
annealed metals generally have a rounded profile; in cold-
Worked metals, they usually have a sharp profile.
• The indenter, which has a finite elastic modulus, also
undergoes elastic deformation under the applied load; as a
result, hardness measurements may not be as accurate as
expected.
• One method for minimizing this effect is to use tungsten
carbide balls; because of their higher modulus of elasticity.
 Most Common Hardness Tests
• Brinell Test: Introduced by J.A. Brinell in 1900, this test involves pressing a steel or tungsten-
carbide ball 10 mm in diameter against a surface, with a load of 500, 1500, or 3000 kg. The
harder the material to be tested, the smaller the impression; hence, a 1500-kg or 3000-kg
load is usually recommended in order to obtain impressions sufficiently large for accurate
measurement.
• The Brinell hardness number (HB) is defined as the ratio of the load P to the curved surface
area of the indentation.
• Rockwell Test: Developed by S.P. Rockwell in 1922, this test measures the depth of
penetration instead of the diameter of the indentation. The indenter is pressed onto the
surface, first with a minor load and then with a major load; the difference in the depths of
penetration is a measure of the hardness of the material.
• There are a variety in Rockwell hardness scales and the indenters used. Rockwell superficial
hardness tests using the same type of indenters, but at lighter loads, have also been
developed.
• Vickers Test: This test, developed in 1922 and formerly known as the diamond pyramid
hardness test, uses a pyramid-shaped diamond indenter and a load that ranges from 1 kg to
120 kg.
• The Vickers hardness number is indicated by (HV). The impressions obtained are typically less
than 0.5 mm on the diagonal. The Vickers test gives essentially the same hardness number
regardless of the load, and is suitable for testing materials with a wide range of hardness,
including heat-treated steels.
• Knoop Test: This test, developed by F. Knoop in 1939, uses a diamond indenter in the shape of
an elongated pyramid, with applied loads ranging generally from 25 g to 5 kg. Because of the
light loads that are applied, the Knoop test is a microhardness test; therefore, it is suitable for
very small or very thin specimens, and for brittle materials such as carbides, ceramics, and
glass.
• The Knoop hardness number is indicated by (HK). The size of the indentation is generally in
the range from 0.01 to 0.10 mm; consequently, surface preparation is very important. Because
the hardness number obtained depends on the applied load, Knoop test results should always
cite the load used.
 Hardness and Strength
• Studies have shown that (in the same units)
the hardness of a cold worked metal is about
three times its yield stress (Y); for annealed
metals, the hardness is about five times (Y).
• A relationship has been established between
the ultimate tensile strength (UTS) and the
Brinell hardness (HB) for steels measured for
a load of 3000 kg.
𝑈𝑇𝑆 = 3.5 𝐻𝐵
where UTS is in MPa
𝑈𝑇𝑆 = 500 𝐻𝐵
where UTS is in psi
• The values obtained from different hardness
tests, on different scales, can be interrelated,
and can be converted using Hardness
Conversion Chart.
 Fatigue Test
• Fatigue failure is associated with cracks that grow
with every stress cycle (fluctuating mechanical
loads or thermal stresses) and that propagate
through the material until a critical crack length is
reached when the material fractures.
• The test is carried out at various stress amplitudes
(S) (the maximum stress in tension and
compression) and number of cycles (N) it takes to
cause total failure. Results are plotted in a so called
S-N curves.
• The maximum stress to which the material can be
subjected without fatigue failure, regardless of the
number of cycles, is known as the endurance limit
or fatigue limit.
• Some materials, such as aluminum alloys, do not
have endurance limit, and the S-N curve continues
its downward trend.
• The endurance limit for metals can be
approximately related to their ultimate tensile
strength. For carbon steels, the endurance limit is
usually 0.4-0.5 times the tensile strength.
 Creep Test
• Creep is the permanent elongation of a component under
a static load maintained for a period of time.
• For metals and their alloys, creep of any significance
occurs at elevated temperatures relative to their melting
temperature. The mechanism of creep at elevated
temperature in metals is generally attributed to grain-
boundary sliding.
• The creep test typically consists of subjecting a specimen
to a constant tensile load at elevated temperature and
measuring the changes in length at various time
increments. The specimen eventually fails by necking and
fracture, called rupture or creep rupture.
• A typical creep curve usually consists of primary,
secondary, and tertiary stages. The creep rate increases
with specimen temperature and applied load.
• Stress relaxation is closely related to creep. In stress
relaxation, the stresses resulting from loading of a
structural component decrease in magnitude over a
period of time, even though the dimensions of the
component remain constant.
 Impact Test
• A typical impact test consists of placing a notched
specimen in an impact tester and breaking the
specimen with a swinging pendulum.
• In the Charpy test, the specimen is supported at both
ends; in the Izod test, it is supported at one end like a
cantilever beam.
• From the amount of swing of the pendulum, the energy
dissipated in breaking the specimen can be obtained;
this energy is the impact toughness of the material.
• Impact tests are particularly useful in determining the
ductile-brittle transition temperature of materials.
• Materials that have high impact resistance generally
have high strength, high ductility, and, hence, high
toughness.
• The use of a notch in the test specimen is crucial in
increasing the sensitivity and reproducibility of the
measurement.
• Sensitivity to surface defects (notch sensitivity) is
important, as it significantly lowers impact toughness,
particularly in heat-treated metals and in ceramics and
glasses.
 Failures of Materials and Fractures
• Failure is one of the most important
aspects of material behavior, because it
influences the selection of:
1. Material for a particular application
2. Methods of manufacturing
3. Service life of the component. (a) necking and fracture of ductile materials; (b) Buckling of ductile materials under
a compressive load; (c) fracture of brittle materials in compression; (d) cracking on
• Although failure of materials is generally the barreled surface of ductile materials in compression.
regarded as undesirable, some products
are designed in such a way that failure is
essential for their function.
• There are two general types of failure:
1. Fracture, through either internal or
external cracking; fracture is further sub
classified into two general categories:
A. Ductile B. Brittle (a) brittle fracture in polycrystalline metals; (b) shear fracture in ductile single
2. Buckling. crystals; (c) ductile cup-and-cone fracture in polycrystalline metals; (d) complete
ductile fracture in polycrystalline metals, with 100% reduction of area.
 Ductile Fracture
• Ductile fracture is characterized by plastic
deformation, which precedes failure.
• In a tension test most metals and alloys neck down
to a finite area and then fail.
• Ductile fracture generally takes place along planes
on which the shear stress is a maximum.
• Thus in torsion, for example, a ductile metal
fractures along a plane perpendicular to the axis
of twist; that is the plane on which the shear stress (a) early stage of necking; (b) small voids begin to form within
is a maximum.
the necked region; (c) voids coalesce, producing an internal
• Fracture in simple shear, by contrast, is a result of crack; (d) the rest of the cross-section begins to fail at the
extensive slip along slip planes within the grains. periphery, by shearing; (e) the final fracture surfaces, known as
• In a tension-test specimen, fracture begins at the cup- (top fracture surface) and cone- (bottom surface) fracture.
center of the necked region as a result of the
growth and coalescence of cavities. The central
region becomes one large crack, this crack then
propagates to the periphery of the necked region.
Because of its appearance, the fracture surface of a
tension-test specimen is called a cup-and-cone
fracture.
 Deformation of Soft and Hard Inclusions

• Inclusions may consist of impurities of various kinds and of second-phase particles, such
as; oxides, carbides, and sulfides.
• The extent of their influence depends on such factors as their shape, hardness,
distribution, and fraction of total volume; the greater the volume fraction of inclusions,
the lower will be the ductility of the material.
• The alignment of inclusions during plastic deformation leads to mechanical fibering.
• Two factors affect void formation:
a) The strength of the bond at the interface between an inclusion and the matrix. If the bond is
strong, there is less tendency for void formation during plastic deformation.
b) The hardness of the inclusion. If the inclusion is soft, such as one of manganese sulfide, it will
conform to the overall shape change of the workpiece during plastic deformation. If the
inclusion is hard, it could lead to void formation.
 Brittle Fracture
• Brittle fracture occurs with little or no gross
plastic deformation.
• In tension, fracture takes place along the
crystallographic plane (cleavage plane) on
which the normal tensile stress is a maximum.
• In general, low temperature and a high rate
of deformation promote brittle fracture.
• Brittle fracture of a specimen in compression
is more complex, and fracture may even
follow a path that is theoretically at an angle
of 45° to the direction of the applied force.
• An important factor in fracture is the
presence of defects, such as scratches, flaws,
and preexisting external or internal cracks.
This explains why brittle materials exhibit
such weakness in tension compared with
their strength in compression.
Surface of ductile fracture in low-carbon steel, showing
dimples. Fracture is usually initiated at impurities, inclusions,
or preexisting voids (microporosity) in the metal.
In intergranular fracture, the crack propagates along the
grain boundaries; it generally occurs when the grain
boundaries are soft, contain a brittle phase, or have
been weakened by liquid or solid metal embrittlement
In polycrystalline metals, the fracture paths most commonly
observed are transgranular (transcrystalline or intragranular);
that is, the crack propagates through the grain.
Fatigue fracture typically occurs in a brittle manner. Minute
external or internal cracks develop at preexisting flaws or
defects in the material; these cracks then propagate over time
and eventually lead to total and sudden failure of the part. The
fracture surface in fatigue is generally characterized by the
term beach marks, because of its appearance. Under high
magnification a series of striations can be seen on fracture
surfaces, each beach mark consisting of several striations.
 Ductile to Brittle Transition Temperature
• Many metals undergo a sharp change in ductility and
toughness across a narrow temperature range called the
transition temperature.
• The transition temperature depends on such factors as
the:
1. Composition
Increasing carbon content in steel raises Tcrit while
the opposite is true for manganese content
2. Microstructure
This phenomenon occurs mostly in body centered
cubic and in some hexagonal close packed metals; it is
rarely exhibited by face centered cubic metals
3. Surface finish
The presence of surface notches raises Tcrit
4. Shape of the specimen
Abrupt changes in workpiece shape raise Tcrit
5. Grain size
Bigger grain size has lower Tcrit
6. Deformation rate.
High rates raises Tcrit
 Residual Stresses
• Residual Stresses are stresses that remain
within a part after it has been formed and all
the external forces are removed.
• When workpieces are subjected to plastic
deformation that is not uniform throughout
the part they develop residual stresses.
• Residual stresses can also be caused by local
expansions and contractions caused by
temperature gradients within the material
producing a nonuniform deformation.
• Because there are no external forces applied,
the internal forces resulting from these residual
stresses must be in static equilibrium.
• In some cases the material acquires a new
radius of curvature (warping) in order to
balance the internal forces.
 Distorting Residual Stresses
• The equilibrium of residual stresses may be
disturbed by the removal of a layer of material
from the part, such as by machining or grinding.
• Residual stresses can be reduced or eliminated
by:
1. Stress-relief annealing
2. Further deformation of the part, such as
stretching it.
3. Given sufficient time, residual stresses may also
diminish at room temperature (relaxation of
residual stresses). This time will be reduced by
raising the temperature.
• Tensile residual stresses on the surface of a
part are generally undesirable because:
1. They lower the fatigue life and fracture strength
of the part.
2. They can lead, over a period of time, to stress
cracking or to stress-corrosion cracking
• Compressive residual stresses on a surface, on
the other hand, are generally desirable in order
to increase the fatigue life of components.
 Fatigue Strength
• Fatigue life is greatly influenced by the method of
preparation of the surfaces of the part or specimen.
• The fatigue strength of manufactured products can
be improved overall by the following methods:
1. Inducing compressive residual stresses on surfaces-for
example, by shot peening or by roller burnishing.
2. Case hardening (surface hardening) by various means
3. Providing a fine surface finish and thereby reducing
the effects of notches and other surface imperfections
4. Selecting appropriate materials and ensuring that they
are free from significant amounts of inclusions, voids, and
impurities
• The following factors and processes can reduce
fatigue strength:
1. Tensile residual stresses on the surface
2. Decarburization
3. Surface pits (due to corrosion) that act as stress raisers
4. Hydrogen embrittlement
5. Galvanizing
6. Electroplating
 Work, Heat, and Temperature
• Most of the mechanical work in plastic deformation
is converted into heat.
• A portion of this work is stored within the deformed
material as elastic energy.
• Stored energy is generally 5-10% of the total energy
input; in some alloys it may be as high as 30%.
• The theoretical (adiabatic) temperature rise (ΔT) is
given by:
𝑢
∆𝑇 = 𝜌𝐶
where u is the specific energy (work of deformation
per unit volume), ρ is the density, and c is the specific
heat of the material
• If the deformation process is performed rapidly, the
heat losses will be relatively small over that brief
period. If the process is carried out slowly, the
actual temperature rise will be only a fraction of
the calculated value.