Professional Documents
Culture Documents
www.elsevier.com/locate/msea
Abstract
The microstructural evolution and the change in hardness have been investigated for 18Cr– 8Ni (type 304H) stainless steel
during long-term creep. Creep and creep-rupture tests were carried out at temperatures between 550 (823) and 750°C (1023 K) for
up to 180 000 h. The hardening behavior during creep depends on the stress level, as well as the precipitation of M23C6 carbides
and s phase. At a high stress of 177 MPa, the hardening during creep is much larger than the age hardening, indicating that the
hardening during creep is mainly caused by the strain hardening due to creep deformation. At a later stage of creep, the softening
occurs due to the recovery of excess dislocations, which becomes more significant with decreasing stress and increasing test
duration. The strain hardening disappears with decreasing stress level and increasing test duration. At a low stress of 61 MPa or
less, the hardening during creep can be approximately given by the age hardening under no stress, except for the final stage of
creep. © 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
0921-5093/01/$ - see front matter © 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 9 2 1 - 5 0 9 3 ( 0 1 ) 0 1 0 1 2 - 7
H. Tanaka et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A319–321 (2001) 788–791 789
The chemical compositions of the steel used were was 200–240 mm which corresponds to two or three
0.07C, 0.55Si, l.46Mn, 0.3P, 0.006S, 9.57Ni, 18.95Cr, times the average grain size.
0.04Mo, 0.07Cu, 0.062Ti, 0.014Al, 0.0018B, 0.0278
(mass percentage) N and Fe, balance. The creep speci-
mens, having a geometry of 6 mm in diameter and 30 3. Results and discussion
mm in gauge length, were taken longitudinally from the
middle of the wall thickness of the as-received boiler 3.1. Creep rupture strength
tube. The tube had a size of 50.8 mm in outer diameter
and 8 mm in wall thickness and was already solution Fig. 1 shows the stress versus time to rupture data.
annealed. Creep and creep rupture tests were carried The solid curves are drawn on the based of the time-
out for up to about 180 000 h at temperatures between temperature parameter method of Manson-Haferd [8].
The creep fracture modes for the 304H steel are divided
550 (823) and 750°C (1023 K). The longitudinal cross-
into regimes of transgranular fracture (denoted by T)
section of the gauge and head (or grip) portions of the
and three types of intergranular fracture; the wedge-
specimens was observed using optical, scanning and
type cracking (W), the creep cavitation associated with
transmission electron microscopes (SEM and TEM).
M23C6 carbides at grain boundaries (C) and the s/
The head portion can be regarded as an unstressed matrix interface cracking along grain boundaries (s)
portion. The Vickers hardness was measured at a load [4,5]. The present results suggest that the creep fracture
of 49 N (5 kgf mm − 2). The indentation size at this load modes at long times above about 10 000 h are closely
connected with the precipitation behavior of M23C6
carbides and s phase.
Fig. 4. Creep curves of type 304h steel at 177, 118 and 61 MPa at
650°C.
Fig. 4. At 65 h (t/tr =0.9), the matrix having low than 100 000 h, indicating a low stress condition pre-
density of dislocations was surrounded by walls of high sumably much less than 61 MPa at 650°C. Therefore,
dislocation density, indicating that rearrangement of for estimating materials degradation or remaining life
excess dislocations had occurred during creep. In the for type 304 austenitic steel components, the hardness
final stage of creep above 65 h, an increase in disloca- can be approximated by the age hardening under no
tion density was observed again in the matrix. At 118 stress and the results shown in Fig. 2a can be used as
MPa, there is not a large difference in hardness between reference or standard data. By comparing the hardness
the specimen gauge and head portions for up to about of the components with the data shown in Fig. 2a and
1000 h but the hardness in the specimen gauge portion by observing microstructure, we can also estimate the
increases rapidly with time above 1000 h followed by operating conditions, such as operating temperature
softening after reaching a maximum at about t/tr= 0.8. and time, for the components.
At short times less than 1000 h, the hardening during
creep is determined mainly by the precipitation harden-
ing due to the M23C6 carbides but the strain hardening 4. Conclusions
is not large, because the creep strain is relatively small
0.04 or less as can be seen in Fig. 4. The rapid increase During thermal aging under no stress, the precipita-
in hardness above about 1000 h correlates with the tion of M23C6 carbides and s phase causes the age
rapid increase in creep strain, indicating strain harden- hardening at short times below 1000 h and at long
ing. The softening in the final stage of creep is consid- times above about 10 000 h, respectively, at around
ered to result from the recovery or rearrangement of 650°C.
excess dislocations and the coarsening of precipitates. The hardening behavior during creep at 650°C de-
At a low stress of 61 MPa, the hardening during creep pends on stress levels as well as the precipitation of
is approximately the same as the age hardening for M23C6 carbides and s phase. At a high stress of 177
almost whole range of test duration, except for the final MPa, the hardness increases for up to t/tr=0.7, then
stage of creep where the softening occurs as at 118 decreases slightly and again increases just before creep-
MPa. This suggests that the hardening during creep is rupture. The hardening during creep is much larger
determined substantially by the precipitation hardening than the age hardening, indicating that the hardening
due to the M23C6 carbides at short times and due to the during creep is mainly caused by the strain hardening.
s phase at long times above 10 000 h. The strain The strain hardening disappears with decreasing stress
hardening is much smaller at 61 MPa than at 177 and level and increasing test duration.
118 MPa. The effects of recovery or rearrangement of For estimating materials degradation or remaining
excess dislocations and of coarsening of precipitates life for type 304 austenitic steel components, which are
become more significant with decreasing stress, because usually operated under stresses presumably less than 61
the test duration becomes longer and the creep defor- MPa, the hardness can be approximated by the age
mation rate becomes lower with decreasing stress. The hardening under no stress, except for the final stage just
present results indicate that the difference in hardness before creep-rupture.
between the specimen gauge and head portions disap-
pears with decreasing stress level and that the harden-
ing during creep under stresses less than 61 MPa can be References
approximately given by the age hardening under no
stress, except for the final stage of creep. [1] H. Tanaka, M. Murata, F. Abe, K. Yagi, Mater. Sci. Eng.
In Fig. 2b, the hardness in the creep-ruptured speci- A234 – 236 (1997) 1049.
[2] Y. Minami, H. Kimura, Y Ihara, Mater. Sci. Technol. 2 (1986)
mens decreases with increasing temperature except for 795.
600°C. This is also correlated with an increased effect [3] V.A. Biss, V.K. Sikka, Metall. Trans. 12A (1981) 1360.
of recovery of excess dislocations with increasing tem- [4] N. Shinya, J. Kyono, H. Tanaka, M. Murata, S. Yokoi, Tetsu-
perature, depending on self-diffusion rates. The increase To-Hagane 69 (1983) 1668 in Japanese.
in hardness at long times above 10 000 h at 600°C is [5] H. Tanaka, M. Murata, M. Kaise, N. Shinya, Tetsu-To-Hagane
74 (1988) 2009 in Japanese.
caused by the large precipitation hardening due to the [6] M. Murata, H. Tanaka, E. Abe, H. Irie, Proceedings of the
s phase. Eighth. International Conference on Creep and Fracture of Engi-
neering Materials and Structures, Key Eng. Mater. 171 –174
3.3. Application to e6aluation of long-term operating (1999) 513.
[7] National Research Institute for Metals Creep Data Sheet, Metal-
components
lographic Atlas of Long-Term Crept Materials, National Re-
search Institute for Metals, Japan, No. M-1 (1999).
Most of high-temperature plants using type 304 [8] National Research Institute for Metals Creep Data Sheet, Na-
austenitic steel are being operated for long times greater tional Research Institute for Metals, Japan, No. 4B (1986).