Lab 7 – Fracture: Ductile to Brittle Transition

Objective
The primary objective of this experiment is to study the effect of temperature on fracture and
toughness of steels and to determine the temperature range for ductile to brittle transition.

Abstract
The mechanical properties of materials depend on their composition and microstructure. In the
materials class we have already learned that a material’s composition, nature of bonding, crystal
structure, and defects such as dislocations, grain size, etc., have a profound influence on the strength
and ductility of metallic materials. In this experiment we evaluate another factor that affect the
mechanical properties of materials, such as how lower temperatures can cause many steels (and
plastics) to became brittle. The special chemistry of the steel used on the Titanic and the stress
associated in the fabrication and embitterment of this steel when subjected to lower temperatures have
been identified as factors contributing to the failure of the ship’s hull. Similarly lower temperatures
contributed to the brittleness of the plastic used for the O-rings, causing the 1986 Challenger accident.

The ductile to brittle transition is related to the temperature dependence of measured impact energy
absorption and the ductile to brittle transition temperature is the temperature (or temperature range)
at which a material changes from ductile to brittle fracture. The transition temperature can be
determined by monitoring the (impact) energy required to fracture a specimen as a function of
temperature. The impact energy is obtained via Charpy impact test. A series of Charpy impact tests
performed on a set of V-notched standard specimens of 1040 steel at different temperatures helps us
to determine the temperature range over which this transition takes place.

Background
Ductile and Brittle Fracture
The strength of a material is the critical stress required to initiate failure. Strength is not the only
mechanical parameter that determines the usefulness of a material for a specific application. Some
glasses are as strong as steel, but nobody would recommend the use of glass for car bumpers! The
reason is that steel can absorb a large amount of energy before it fails whereas glass cannot. The
parameter describing the ability of a material to absorb energy is toughness.

The ultimate mechanical failure is fracture. We commonly categorize fracture as being either ductile
or brittle. Classification is based on the ability of a material to experience plastic deformation. Ductile
materials such as steels, typically exhibit substantial plastic deformation with high-energy absorption
before fracture. On the other hand, there is normally little or no plastic deformation with low energy
absorption accompanying a brittle fracture.

Brittle fracture requires energy to separate atoms and expose new surfaces along the fracture path.
Ductile failure requires not only the energy just mentioned but much more additional energy to
deform plastically the material ahead of the fracture. Figure 1 shows the typical cup-and-cone ductile
fracture in aluminum and a brittle fracture in mild steel.

One measure of the toughness is the area of the stress-strain curve. The units for toughness are
therefore the product of stress and strain: i.e. energy per unit volume. In reality, the energy
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MSE 359/METE 357, Materials/Metallurgical Laboratory I, Materials Engineering Department, KNUST, Kumasi
consumption is very nonuniform within the fractured test piece; negligible is absorbed in non-
deformed regions, while a major quantity is absorbed in the vicinity of the fracture. Furthermore, this
distribution is strongly affected by the size and shape of the test specimen. Notches are especially
critical in determining the energy requirements for fracture. A notch is machined in the side of the
test specimen and serves as a stress concentrator, ensuring that fracture will occur at that location.

(a) (b)
Figure 1: (a) Cup and Cone Fracture in Aluminum (b) Brittle Fracture in Mild Steel
[Callister 2003]

Ductile to Brittle Transition

Many materials show an abrupt drop in ductility and toughness as the temperature is lowered. In glass
and other amorphous (i.e. non-crystalline) materials, this change corresponds to the glass-transition
temperature. Metals are crystalline but they may instead exhibit a ductile-brittle transition
temperature, Td, that divides a lower temperature regime where the fracture is said to be non-ductile
from a higher temperature range where considerable plastic deformation accompanies failure.

BCC metals such as low-carbon steels, become brittle at low temperature or at very high strain rates.
FCC metals, however, generally remain ductile at low temperatures. Almost any metal may be made
brittle by the presence of inclusions or dissolved gasses, by the neutron irradiation, or by the presence
of brittle second phase particles along the grain boundaries. Many polymers become brittle at low
temperature and exhibit a glass transition temperature much like that observed in glasses.

In metals, plastic deformation at room temperature occurs by dislocation motion. The stress required
to move a dislocation depends on the atomic bonding, crystal structure, and obstacles such as solute
atoms, grain boundaries, precipitate particles and other dislocations. If the stress to move dislocation
too high, the metal will fail instead by the propagation of cracks that is the failure will be brittle. Thus,
either plastic flow or crack propagation will occur, depending on which process requires the smaller
applied stress. In BCC metals, the flow stress reduced, whereas the crack propagation stress is
relatively independent of temperature. Thus the mode of failure changes from plastic flow at high
temperature to brittle fracture at low temperature. In FCC metals, dislocation movement remains high
at low temperature and the material remains relatively ductile.

A typical temperature dependence of the impact energy is shown in Figure 2. The failure surface is
indicative of the type of fracture. For ductile fracture, this surface appears fibrous or dull and brittle
fractures have a granular (shiny) texture. Over the ductile to brittle transition, both types of features
exist (see Figure 3).

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MSE 359/METE 357, Materials/Metallurgical Laboratory I, Materials Engineering Department, KNUST, Kumasi
 Figure 2: Variation in Impact energy with Temperature

Figure 3: - Fracture Surfaces of A36 Charpy Steel V-Notch Specimens Tested at indicated
Temperatures. (C) [Callister 2003]

Figure 4: Influence of Carbon content on energy-vs-Temperature Behavior of Steel. [Callister 2003]

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MSE 359/METE 357, Materials/Metallurgical Laboratory I, Materials Engineering Department, KNUST, Kumasi
In general in steels changes in transition temperature, over a range of 50 C, can be produced by either
changing the chemical composition or the microstructure. Figure 4 represents the effect of carbon-
content on the energy-transition-temperature curves for mild steel. It is observed that increasing the
carbon content not only increases the strength of steels, but also raises the transition temperature.
Other factors like decreasing the grain size results in lowering of transition temperature and thus
strengthens and toughens the steel as well.

Procedure and Lab Requirements

1. Each lab section will conduct Charpy Impact tests on steel specimens at five different
temperatures.
The temperatures for the run are:
(i) High temperature (200 C).
(ii) Boiling water temperature (100 C).
(iii) Room temperature (20 C)
(iv) Freezing temperature of water (0 C)
(v) Dry ice temperature (-79 C).[Dry ice is frozen carbon dioxide]
2. In each of the two furnaces preheated at 100 C and 200C respectively, soak one Charpy
specimen for 30 minutes.
3. Place one sample and keep it for at least 30 minutes in each of the following containers: dry
ice and ice-water bath.
4. Take out the samples one-by-one and run Charpy Impact test on each of them (including the
room temperature specimen).
5. Note the energy values and observe the features of the fracture surface.
6. Based on the data collected plot the impact energy as a function of temperature. Using the
graph estimate the ductile-to brittle transition temperature.

Notice: Several different definitions are used for the transition temperature. We define it as the
temperature for which the impact energy is halfway between the impact energy for the highest
temperature and the impact energy for the lowest temperature. This definition is usually expressed as
the temperature corresponding to the average energy of the upper and the lower shelf values.

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MSE 359/METE 357, Materials/Metallurgical Laboratory I, Materials Engineering Department, KNUST, Kumasi