PHYSICAL MECHANICAL CHEMICAL

ELECTRICAL MAGNETIC THERMAL

 DENSITY POROSITY DURABILITY

SPECIFIC SPECIFIC WATER

WEIGHT GRAVITY ABSORPTION

WATER FIRE WEATHERING

PERMEABILITY RESISTANCE RESISTANCE
MATERIAL DENSITY (kg/m3)
Water 1000
Cement 1440
Steel 7850
Asphalt 2400
P
p

P solid

P P
 SPECIFIC WEIGHT

Unit Weight, weight per unit volume of material.

𝛾 = 𝜌𝛿
Specific weight is equal to the product of density of material and standard
gravity due to acceleration.
 𝜌𝑚
G=
𝜌𝑟
 WATER PERMEABILITY

The ability of a material to permit water through it is called water

permeability. Dense materials like glass metals etc. are called impervious
materials which cannot allow water through it.
 WEATHERING RESISTANCE

The property of a material to withstand against all atmospheric actions

without losing its strength and shape. Weathering effects the durability of
material. For example corrosion occurs in iron due to weathering. To resist
this paint layer is provided.
 Pavement may fail due to excessive roughness at the surface,
A building may have to be closed due to excessive vibrations by
even though the stress levels are well within the capabilities of
wind or other live loads, although it could be structurally sound.
the material.
 STATICS

DYNAMIC

PERIODIC - TRANSIENT - an
harmonic or sinusoidal RANDOM - the load impulse load that is
load, repeats itself with pattern never repeats applied over a short
time time interval
 𝐹
stress 𝜎 =
𝐴

Figure: Typical uniaxial stress–strain diagrams for some engineering materials:

(a) glass and chalk, (b) steel, (c) aluminum alloys, (d) concrete, and (e) soft
rubber.
 𝜎
𝐸 = ; 𝜎 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜀 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝜀

−𝜀1
𝑣=
𝜀𝑎
 𝜎𝑥 − 𝑣(𝜎𝑦 + 𝜎𝑧 ൯
𝜀𝑥 = Figure: Normal stresses applied on a cubical element.
𝐸

𝜎𝑦 − 𝑣(𝜎𝑧 + 𝜎𝑥 ൯
𝜀𝑦 =
𝐸

𝜎𝑧 − 𝑣(𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 ൯
𝜀𝑧 =
𝐸
Sample Problem
A cube made of alloy with dimensions 50mm x 50mm x 50mm is placed into a pressure chamber
and subjected to a pressure of 90 MPa. If the modulus of elasticity of the alloy is 100 GPa and
Poisson’s ratio is 0.28, what will be the length of each side of the cube, assuming that the material
remains within the elastic region?

Solution:

𝜎𝑥 − 𝑣(𝜎𝑦 + 𝜎𝑧 ൯ −90 − 0.28 × −90 − 90

𝜀𝑥 = = = −0.000396 𝑚Τ𝑚
𝐸 100000

𝜀𝑦 = 𝜀𝑧 = −0.000396 𝑚/𝑚
∆𝑥 = ∆𝑦 = ∆𝑧 = −0.000396 × 50 = −0.0198 𝑚𝑚
𝐿𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 50 − 0.0198 = 49.9802 𝑚𝑚
 (a) Linear Material – stress-strain relationship follows a
straight line
(b) Elastic Material – returns to its original shape when load
is removed and reacts instantaneously to changes in load.

Figure: Elastic behavior: (a) linear and (b) nonlinear

For materials that do not display any linear behavior, such as concrete and soils determining a Young’s modulus or elastic modulus
can be problematical. There are several options for arbitrarily defining the modulus for these materials. Figure shows four options:
the initial tangent, tangent, secant, and chord moduli.

Initial tangent modulus the slope of the tangent of the stress–

strain curve at the origin
tangent modulus the slope of the tangent at a point on
the stress–strain curve
secant modulus the slope of a chord drawn between the
origin and an arbitrary point on the
stress–strain curve
chord modulus the slope of a chord drawn between two
points on the stress–strain curve.

Figure: Methods for approximating modulus.

 Figure: Stress–strain behavior of plastic materials: (a) example of loading and unloading, (b)
elastic–perfectly plastic, and (c) elasto–plastic with strain hardening.

Figure When the load is removed from the specimen, some of the deformation will be recovered
(a) and some of the deformation will remain.
Figure a linear elastic–perfectly plastic response in which the material exhibits a linear elastic
(b) response upon loading, followed by a completely plastic response
Figure an elastoplastic response in which the first portion is an elastic response followed by a
(c) combined elastic and plastic response.
Sample Problem 2 Sample Problem 3
An elastoplastic material with strain hardening has A rod made of aluminum alloy, with a gauge length of 100
the stress–strain relationship shown in Figure 1.6(c). mm, diameter of 10 mm, and yield strength of 150 MPa,
The modulus of elasticity is 175 GPa, yield strength was subjected to a tensile load of 5.85 kN. If the gauge
is 480 MPa, and the slope of the strain-hardening length was changed to 100.1 mm and the diameter was
portion of the stress–strain diagram is 20.7 GPa changed to 9.9967 mm, calculate the modulus of elasticity
a. Calculate the strain that corresponds to a stress of and Poisson’s ratio.
550 MPa. Solution:
b. If the 550-MPa stress is removed, calculate the
permanent strain. 𝑃 5850 𝑁 6 𝑃𝑎 = 74.5𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝜎= = = 74.5 × 10
𝐴 𝜋(5 × 10−3 𝑚ሻ2

Solution: Since the applied stress is well below the yield strength, the material is within
the elastic region.
∆𝐿 (100.1 − 100ሻ
480 550−480 𝜀𝑎 = = = 0.001
a. 𝜀 = 175×103
+ 20.7×103
= 0.0061 𝑚/𝑚 𝐿 100
𝜎 74.5
550 𝐸= = = 74,500𝑀𝑃𝑎 = 74.5 𝐺𝑃𝑎
b. 𝜀𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 0.0061 − 175×103 𝜀𝑎 0.001

= 0.0061 − 0.0031 = 0.0030 𝑚/𝑚 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 9.9967 − 10

𝜀1 = = = −0.00033
𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 10
−𝜀1 0.00033
𝑣= = = 0.33
𝜀𝑎 0.001
 Figure (b) shows the resulting
deformation versus time, where the
Figure (a) shows a sinusoidal deformation lags the load—that is,
axial load applied on a the maximum deformation of the
viscoelastic material, such as sample occurs after the maximum
asphalt concrete, versus time. load is applied. The amount of time
delayed of the deformation depends
on the material characteristics and
the temperature.

Figure: Load-deformation response of a viscoelastic material.

Viscoelastic materials, such as plastics and asphalt, Metals or concrete, are less affected by
are greatly affected by temperature, even if the temperatures, especially when they are near
temperature is changed by only a few degrees. ambient temperature.
 The amount of energy
The area under the elastic A high-strength material is not
required to fracture a
portion of the curve is the necessarily a tough material
specimen is a measure of the
modulus of resilience.
toughness of the material
 The factor of safety (FS) is defined as the ratio of the stress at failure to 𝜎𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑟𝑒
the allowable stress for design (maximum anticipated stress): 𝐹𝑆 =
𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑑

Typically, a high factor of safety requires a large structural cross section and consequently a higher cost. The proper
value of the factor of safety varies from one structure to another and depends on several factors, including the:

 cost of unpredictable failure in lives, dollars, and time,

 variability in material properties,
 degree of accuracy in considering all possible loads applied to the structure, such as earthquakes,
 possible misuse of the structure, such as improperly hanging an object from a truss roof,
 degree of accuracy of considering the proper response of materials during design, such as assuming
elastic response although the material might not be perfectly elastic.